[ES] La propuesta de uso de sustratos cerámicos, tipo baldosa, como parte de un sistema fotovoltaico integrado y de almacenamiento de energía para edificaciones resulta muy interesante desde la perspectiva de generar edificios autosustentables energéticamente, reducir el consumo de combustibles fósiles y la correspondiente huella de carbono. La fabricación de sustratos cerámicos con superficies funcionalizadas con celdas solares y supercapacitores es aún limitada. Los principales inconvenientes están relacionados con la falta de conductividad y alta rugosidad superficial que presentan este tipo de sustratos. En esta investigación se propone la fabricación de celdas solares del tipo unión p-n y de electrodos híbridos para su uso en supercapacitores sobre la superficie metalizada de un sustrato cerámico utilizando métodos de inmersión y electrodeposición. Siendo el principal objetivo el diseño y fabricación sostenible de materiales cerámicos multifuncionales para la generación y almacenamiento de energía eléctrica de baja potencia. Se ha evaluado el efecto de las condiciones de activación del catalizador de paladio en la síntesis del recubrimiento metálico de Ni-Mo-P, sobre un sustrato cerámico, por reducción química autocatalítica (electroless), así como, la aplicación de tratamientos térmicos posteriores. Además se ha estudiado, sobre dos tipos de sustratos, incluyendo el sustrato cerámico metalizado, el comportamiento electroquímico que presenta la combinación de polipirrol y óxido de grafeno en la fabricación de un electrodo híbrido, para su uso en un supercapacitor; y el comportamiento fotoeléctrico que presenta la unión de óxido de zinc y óxido cuproso, para la fabricación de una celda solar del tipo unión p-n. Los resultados obtenidos muestran que las condiciones de activación del catalizador de paladio y la aplicación de un tratamiento térmico producen cambios en las características morfológicas y en las propiedades mecánicas, eléctricas y de adherencia del recubrimiento de Ni-Mo-P. Un balance entre las propiedades eléctricas, mecánicas y de adherencia del recubrimiento de Ni-Mo-P se consigue a bajas condiciones de activación del catalizador (300 ºC por 12 h). Además, se estableció que la aplicación de un tratamientos térmico (160 ºC por 16 h) en condiciones de vacío mejoran las propiedades eléctricas y morfológicas del recubrimiento. La combinación de capas de polipirrol y de óxido de grafeno en la fabricación del electrodo híbrido del supercapacitor, sobre los sustratos de fibra de carbono y el cerámico metalizado, muestra un comportamiento electroquímico. Se determina que existe una mejora en el crecimiento de la capa de polipirrol con la adición de una capa de óxido de grafeno reducido. El electrodo sobre el sustrato cerámico metalizado se determina un incremento de las propiedades electroquímicas del electrodo al reducir químicamente el óxido de grafeno. Los electrodos presentan una ciclabilidad a largo plazo. En este mismo sentido, las propiedades fotoeléctricas de la celda solar fabricada sobre el sustrato cerámico conductor presentaron una dependencia con la estructura superficial del recubrimiento de Ni-Mo-P y con las condiciones de electrodeposición de la capa de ZnO. Las celdas solares presentan considerables propiedades fotoeléctricas comparables con la literatura. Finalmente, se ha conseguido obtener un sustrato cerámico multifuncional con propiedades de generación y almacenamiento de energía eléctrica mediante la metalización del sustrato cerámico por el proceso de reducción química autocatalítica y la combinación de materiales como polipirrol, óxido de grafeno, óxido de zinc y óxido cuproso. Las propiedades fotoeléctricas y electroquímicas obtenidas son comparables con las que se reportan en la literatura, lo que resulta prometedor para trabajos futuros. / [CAT] La proposta d'ús de substrats ceràmics, tipus rajola, com a part d'un sistema fotovoltaic integrat i d'emmagatzematge d'energia per a edificacions resulta molt interessant des de la perspectiva de generar edificis autosostenibles energèticament, reduir el consum de combustibles fòssils i la corresponent petjada de carboni. La fabricació de substrats ceràmics amb superfícies funcionalitzades amb cel¿les solars i supercapacitors és encara limitada. Els principals inconvenients estan associats a la falta de conductivitat i alta rugositat que presenten aquest tipus de substrats. En aquesta tesi es proposa la fabricació de cel¿les solars del tipus unió p-n i d'elèctrodes híbrids per al seu ús en supercapacitors sobre la superfície metal¿litzada del substrat ceràmic utilitzant mètodes de Doctor Blade, immersió i electrodeposició. Sent el principal objectiu el disseny i fabricació sostenible de materials ceràmics multifuncionals per a la generació i emmagatzematge d'energia elèctrica de baixa potència. S'ha avaluat l'efecte de les condicions d'activació del catalitzador de pal¿ladi en el procés de metal¿lització per reducció química autocatalítica (electroless) del recobriment de Ni-Mo-P sobre el substrat ceràmic, així com l'aplicació o no de tractaments tèrmics posteriors. També s'estudia, sobre dos tipus de substrats, incloent el substrat ceràmic metal¿litzat, el comportament electroquímic que presenta la combinació d'un polímer conductor (polipirrol) i un nanomaterial de carboni (òxid de grafé) per a fabricar un elèctrode híbrid per al seu ús en un supercapacitors, igual que el comportament fotoelèctric que mostra l'òxid de zinc i l'òxid cuprós en la fabricació d'una cel¿la solar del tipus unió p-n. Els resultats obtinguts mostren que les condicions d'activació del catalitzador de pal¿ladi i l'aplicació d'un tractament tèrmic en el recobriment de Ni-Mo-P sobre el substrat ceràmic produeixen canvis en les característiques morfològiques i en les propietats mecàniques, elèctriques i d'adherència del recobriment. S'aconsegueix un balanç entre les propietats elèctriques, mecàniques i d'adherència del recobriment de Ni-Mo-P amb condicions baixes d'activació del catalitzador (300 °C per 12 h). A més, es va establir que l'aplicació d'un tractament tèrmic (160 °C per 16 h) en condicions de buit milloren les propietats elèctriques i morfològiques del recobriment. La combinació de polipirrol i òxid de grafé en la fabricació de l'elèctrode híbrid del supercapacitors, sobre els substrats de fibra de carboni i el ceràmic metal¿litzat, mostra un comportament electroquímic. Es determina que existeix una millora en el creixement del polipirrol amb l'addició d'òxid de grafé reduït. D'altra banda, en l'elèctrode sobre el substrat ceràmic metal¿litzat es determina un increment de les propietats electroquímiques de l'elèctrode en reduir químicament l'òxid de grafé. Els elèctrodes presenten una ciclabilitat a llarg termini. En aquest mateix sentit, les propietats fotoelèctriques de la cel¿la solar fabricada sobre el substrat ceràmic conductor van presentar una dependència amb l'estructura superficial del recobriment de Ni-Mo-P i amb les condicions de electrodeposició de la capa de ZnO. Les cel¿les solars presenten considerables propietats fotoelèctriques comparables amb la literatura. Finalment, s'ha aconseguit obtindre un substrat ceràmic multifuncional amb propietats de generació i emmagatzematge d'energia elèctrica mitjançant el procés de reducció química autocatalítica per a metal¿lització del substrat ceràmic i la combinació de materials com polipirrol, òxid de grafé, òxid de zinc i òxid cuprós. Les propietats fotoelèctriques i electroquímiques obtingudes són comparables amb les indicades en la literatura, el que resulta prometedor per a treballs futurs. / [EN] energy storage system for buildings is very interesting from the perspective of generating self-sustaining energy buildings, reducing the consumption of fossil fuels and the corresponding carbon footprint. The fabrication of functional ceramics towards photovoltaics and energy storage is still limited. The main drawbacks in this respect are associated with the lack of conductivity and high roughness of this kind of substrates. This thesis proposes the fabrication of p-n heterojunction solar cells and hybrid electrodes for supercapacitors based on ceramic substrates by modifying the surface of the substrates by using metallization, dip-coating and electrodeposition methods. The main objective is the design and sustainable fabrication of multifunctional ceramic materials for the generation and storage of low power electrical energy. The metallization of the ceramic substrate with a Ni-Mo-P coating by using electroless method in varying activation conditions of the palladium catalyst as well as the annealing treatment have been evaluated. The electrochemical behavior of a hybrid coating based on conductive polymer (polypyrrole) and carbon nanomaterial (graphene oxide) deposited at the surface of ceramic substrate as well as a conductive substrate was evaluated for the fabrication of hybrid electrode for supercapacitors while the photoelectric behavior exhibited by zinc oxide and cuprous oxide at the surface of ceramic substrate and varying conductive ones was evaluated for in the manufacture of a p-n heterojunction solar cell. The results obtained show that the activation conditions of the palladium catalyst and the application of an annealing treatment produce changes in morphological characteristics and mechanical, electrical and adhesion properties in the electroless Ni-Mo-P coating. A balance between the electrical, mechanical and adhesion properties of the Ni-Mo-P coating is achieved with low catalyst activation conditions (300 °C for 12 h). In addition, the application of annealing treatment (160 ºC for 16 h) under vacuum conditions improves the electrical and morphological properties of the coating. The combination of polypyrrole and graphene oxide in the fabrication of hybrid supercapacitor electrodes, both on the carbon fiber substrates and the metallic ceramic, shows a good electrochemical behavior. It is determined that there is an improvement in the growth of polypyrrole with the addition of reduced graphene oxide. On the other hand, reduction of graphene oxide results in enhancing the electrochemical properties of the metallized ceramic electrode. The electrodes have long-term cyclability. In this way, the photoelectric properties of the solar cell manufactured on the conductive ceramic substrate showed a dependence with the surface structure of the Ni-Mo-P coating and with the electrodeposition conditions of the ZnO layer. Solar cells have photoelectric properties comparable to the literature. Finally, it has been possible to obtain a multifunctional ceramic substrate with potential properties for generation and storage of electric energy through the electroless method to metallize a ceramic substrate and the combination of materials such as polypyrrole, graphene oxide, zinc oxide and cuprous oxide. Photoelectric and electrochemical properties obtained are comparable with those reported in the literature, which is promising for future work. / Este trabajo ha sido desarrollado en el Instituto de Tecnología de Materiales y en el Departamento de Ingeniería Mecánica y de Materiales de la Universitat Politècnica de València, mediante la beca de la Secretaría de Educación Superior, Ciencia, Tecnología e Innovación (SENESCYT) de Ecuador, Convocatoria Docentes Universitarios, 2015. / Rosas Laverde, NM. (2020). Diseño sostenible de materiales cerámicos multifuncionales para el suministro eléctrico de baja potencia [Tesis doctoral no publicada]. Universitat Politècnica de València. https://doi.org/10.4995/Thesis/10251/140554 / TESIS

京都大学 / 新制・課程博士 / 博士(工学) / 甲第24615号 / 工博第5121号 / 新制||工||1979(附属図書館) / 京都大学大学院工学研究科材料工学専攻 / (主査)教授 邑瀬 邦明, 教授 杉村 博之, 教授 宇田 哲也 / 学位規則第4条第1項該当 / Doctor of Philosophy (Engineering) / Kyoto University / DGAM

Une étude de l’oxydation d’une poudre de nanoparticules de cuivre a été menée à 120 - 145°C sous des pressions partielles d’oxygène allant de 1 à 40 kPa. La réaction a été suivie par thermogravimétrie afin d’obtenir les données cinétiques. Des caractérisations chimiques, texturales et morphologiques de la poudre ont été réalisées à différents moments de la transformation. La cuprite (Cu2O) (produit unique) de la réaction croît d’une manière anisotrope et par développement externe autour de la particule initiale qui devient creuse. Une diminution de la surface spécifique et de la porosité de la poudre au cours de la transformation a été mise en évidence.Des tests cinétiques ont montré l’existence d’une étape limitante de croissance jusqu’à un taux de conversion de 0,7 à 140°C. Il a également été montré que pour P(O2) ≤ 4 kPa, les processus de germination et de croissance de l’oxyde interviennent simultanément pendant la réaction et que l’adsorption de l’oxygène est l’étape limitante. Pour P(O2) ≥ 20 kPa, la germination se fait instantanément au début de la transformation dont la vitesse est contrôlée par le processus de croissance, la diffusion du cuivre étant alors l’étape limitante. Deux modèles ont été construits et testés avec succès pour décrire la cinétique dans les deux gammes de P(O2) jusqu’à un taux de conversion donné. Pour expliquer le ralentissement observé au-delà de ce taux de conversion et pour P(O2) ≤ 4 kPa, le modèle a été couplé aux phénomènes de transfert de chaleur et de matière au sein des agglomérats. Ce couplage permet d’évaluer l’hypothèse d’un ralentissement de la réaction par la diffusion des molécules d’oxygène dans les pores de l’agglomérat. / The oxidation of copper nanoparticles at 120 – 145°C was investigated using TGA, DSC, XRD, SEM, TEM and nitrogen adsorption techniques (BET, BJH,..). Isothermal and isobaric studies of the oxidation reaction were carried out under various oxygen partial pressures 1 kPa – 40 kPa. The cuprous oxide (Cu2O) (the unique product of the reaction) grows in an anisotropic manner by outward diffusion of the copper. A considerable decrease of the specific surface area and the porosity of the powder during the transformation was highlighted.It was found that working under P(O2) ≤ 4 kPa leads to reaction where nucleation of Cu2O is in competition with its growth. The study of the dependency of the growth rate on the oxygen partial pressure has shown the adsorption of oxygen to be the rate-determining step. However, when the reaction is conducted under P(O2) ≥ 20 kPa, the nucleation occurs instantaneously in the early beginning of the reaction which will be governed by the growth process. Under these latter conditions of oxygen partial pressure the diffusion of copper ionized vacancies becomes the rate determining step. Hence, two kinetic models have been established to interpret the experimental curves in the two different oxygen partial pressure ranges. The expression of the extent of conversion was successfully confronted to the kinetic data up to an extent of conversion corresponding to the slowdown of the reaction. The kinetic model for P(O2) ≤ 4 kPa was coupled with mass and heat transfer within the porous agglomerate to verify if the diffusion of oxygen molecules in pores is in the origin of the reaction slowdown, this latter hypothesis was found not satisfactory.

The availability of high quality thermodynamic data on solid solutions and compounds present in multicomponent systems assists in optimizing processing parameters for synthesis, and in evaluating stability domains and materials compatibility under different conditions. Several oxide systems of technological interest, for which thermodynamic data was either not available or is inconsistent were selected for study. Thermodynamic properties of phases present in the binary systems Nb-O and Ta-O were measured in the temperature range from 1000 to 1300 K using solid state electrochemical cells based on (Y2O3) ThO2 as the electrolyte. Based on these measurements and more recent data on heat capacity and phase transitions reported in the literature, Gibbs energy of formation for NbO, NbO2, NbO2.422, Nb2O5-x and Ta2O5 were reassessed. Significant improvements in the data for NbO2, Nb2O5 and Ta2O5 are suggested. The pseudo binary system MoO2-TiO2 was investigated because of the inconsistency between the phase diagram and thermodynamic properties of the solid solution reported in the literature. Based on new electrochemical measurements, a new improved phase diagram for the system MoO2-TiO2, incorporating recently discovered monoclinic to tetragonal phase transition in MoO2 at 1533 K, is presented. Isothermal section of the phase diagram for the ternary systems Cr-Rh-O and Ta-Rh-O and thermodynamic properties of ternary oxides CrRhO3 and TaRhO4 were measured for the first time in the temperature range from 900 to 1300 K. Phase relations for these systems have been computed as a function of oxygen potential at fixed temperature and as a function of temperature at selected oxygen partial pressures. Metal-spinel-corundum three-phase equilibrium in the Ni-Al-Cr-O system at 1373 K has been explored because of its relevance to high temperature corrosion of super alloys. The Gibbs energy of mixing of spinel solid solution was derived from the tie-line data and is compared with the values calculated from cation distribution models. An oxygen potential diagram is developed for the decomposition of spinel solid solution to nickel and corundum solid solution at 1373 K under reducing conditions. The high temperature thermodynamic properties of the phases present in quaternary systems Ca-Co-Al-O and Ca-Cu-Ti-O have been measured by solid state electrochemical cells based on stabilized zirconia. Gibbs energies of formation of the quaternary oxides Ca3CoAl4O10 in the temperature range from 1150 to1500 K and CaCu3Ti4O12 in the range from 900 to 1350 K are presented. Chemical potential diagrams have been computed for the system Al2O3-CaO-CoO at 1500 K. The oxygen potential corresponding to the decomposition of the complex perovskite CaCu3Ti4O12 (CCTO) has been calculated as a function of temperature from the emf of the cell. The effect of the oxygen partial pressure on the phase relations in the pseudo-ternary system CaO-(CuO/Cu2O)-TiO2 at 1273 K has been evaluated. The phase diagrams are useful for the control of the secondary phases that form during synthesis of CCTO, a material exhibiting colossal dielectric response.

This talk was presented in the 14th International Conference on Atomic Layer Deposition (ALD 2014) in Kyoto, Japan on 18th June 2014. Abstract Atomic Layer Deposition (ALD) is emerging as a ubiquitous method for the deposition of conformal and homogeneous ultra-thin films on complex topographies and large substrates in microelectronics. Electrochemical deposition (ECD) is the first choice for the deposition of copper (Cu) into the trenches and vias of the interconnect system for ULSI circuits. The ECD of Cu necessitates an electrically conductive seed layer for filling the interconnect structures. ALD is now considered as a solution for conformal deposition of Cu seed layers on very high aspect ratio (AR) structures also for technology nodes below 20 nm, since physical vapor deposition is not applicable for structures with high AR. Cu seed layer deposition by the reduction of Cu2O, which has been deposited from the Cu(I) β-diketonate [(nBu3P)2Cu(acac)] (1) used as Cu precursor, has been successfully carried out on different substrates like Ta, TaN, SiO2, and Ru [1, 2]. It was found that the subsequent gas-phase reduction of the Cu2O films can be aided by introducing catalytic amounts of a Ru precursor into the Cu precursor, so that metallic copper films could potentially obtained also on non-catalytic substrates [3, 4]. In this work, in situ X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS) investigation of the surface chemistry during Cu2O ALD from the mixture of 99 mol % of 1 and 1 mol % of [Ru(η5 C5H4SiMe3)(η5-C7H11)] (2) as ruthenium precursor, and the reduction of Cu2O to metallic Cu by formic acid carried out on SiO2 substrate are demonstrated. Oxidation states of the Cu in the film are identified by comparing the Cu Auger parameter (α) [5] with literature data. α calculated after ALD equals 362.2 eV and after reduction equals 363.8 eV, comparable to the Cu2O and metallic Cu in thin-films [6] respectively. In addition, <10 % of Cu(I), Cu(II), and Cu(OH)2 species are identified from the Cu 2p3/2 and Cu L3VV Auger spectrum after reduction. Consequently, the ALD Cu2O is successfully reduced to metallic copper by in-situ thermal reduction using formic acid. [1] T. Waechtler et al., J. Electrochem. Soc., 156 (6), H453 (2009). [2] T. Waechtler et al., Microelectron. Eng., 88, 684 (2011). [3] S. Mueller et al., Conference Proceedings SCD 2011, Semiconductor Conference Dresden, pp. 1-4. [4] T. Waechtler et al., US Patent Application Publication, US 2013/0062768. [5] C. D. Wagner, Faraday Discuss. Chem. Soc., 60, 291 (1975). [6] J. P. Espinós et al., J. Phys. Chem. B, 106, 6921 (2002).

This poster was presented in the Materials for Advanced Metallization (MAM) 2014 Conference in Chemnitz, Germany. Abstract: Atomic Layer Deposition (ALD) has emerged as an ubiquitous method for the deposition of conformal and homogeneous ultra-thin films on complex topographies and large substrates in microelectronics. Electrochemical deposition (ECD) is the first choice for the deposition of copper (Cu) into the trenches and vias of the interconnect system for ULSI circuits. The ECD of Cu necessitates an electrically conductive seed layer for filling the interconnect structures. ALD is now considered as a solution for conformal deposition of Cu seed layers on very high aspect ratio (AR) structures also for technology nodes below 20 nm, since physical vapor deposition is not applicable for structures with high AR. Cu seed layer deposition by the reduction of Cu2O, which has been deposited from the Cu(I) β-diketonate precursor [(nBu3P)2Cu(acac)], has been successfully carried out on different substrates like Ta, TaN, SiO2, and Ru [1, 2]. However, still many questions are unanswered regarding the underlying surface chemistry of the precursor on many substrates, leading to different growth modes during ALD. In this work, the surface chemistry of [(nBu3P)2Cu(acac)] on SiO2 substrate is investigated by in-situ X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS), reporting vital information about the oxidation state and the atomic concentration after chemisorption on the substrates kept at different temperatures. The aim of the investigation is to understand the stepwise change in the precursor oxidation state with increasing substrate temperature and to identify the temperature limit for the thermal ALD with this Cu precursor on SiO2. For the experiments, the Cu precursor was evaporated on SiO2 substrates kept at temperatures between 22 °C and 300 °C. The measured C/Cu and P/Cu concentration indicated that most of the nBu3P ligands were released either in the gas phase or during adsorption (Fig. 1a). No disproportionation was observed for the Cu precursor in the temperature range between 22 °C and 145 °C. Similarly, in this temperature range the Auger parameter calculated from Cu 2p3/2 and Cu L3VV spectra was found to be 360.0±0.2 eV, comparable to Cu(I) oxidation state [3]. However, disproportionation of the Cu precursor was observed above 200 °C, since C/Cu concentration ratio decreased and substantial metallic Cu was present on the substrate. Hence, 145 °C is the temperature limit for the ALD of Cu2O from this precursor, as the precursor must not alter its chemical state after chemisorption on the substrate. 500 ALD cycles with the probed Cu precursor and wet O2 as co reactant were carried out on SiO2 at 145 °C. After ALD, in situ XPS analysis confirmed the presence of Cu2O on the substrate. Ex-situ spectroscopic ellipsometry indicated an average film thickness of 2.5 nm of Cu2O deposited with a growth per cycle of 0.05 Å/cycle, comparable to previous experiments. References: [1] T. Waechtler, S. Oswald, N. Roth, A. Jakob, H. Lang, R. Ecke, S. E. Schulz, T. Gessner, A. Moskvinova, S. Schulze, M. Hietschold, J. Electrochem. Soc., 156 (6), H453 (2009). [2] T. Waechtler, S. -F. Ding, L. Hofmann, R. Mothes, Q. Xie, S. Oswald, C. Detavernier, S. E. Schulz, X. -P. Qu, H. Lang, T. Gessner, Microelectron. Eng., 88, 684 (2011). [3] J. P. Espinós, J. Morales, A. Barranco, A. Caballero, J. P. Holgado, A. R. González Elipe, J. Phys. Chem. B, 106, 6921 (2002).

Four cluster models for a copper(I)oxide (111) surface have been designed, of which three were studied with respect to their applicability in density functional calculations in the general gradient approximation. Formic acid adsorption on these systems was modelled and yielded four different adsorption structures, of which two were found to have a high adsorption energy. The energetically most favourable adsorption structure was further investigated with respect to its decomposition and a few reactions with adsorbed H and OH species using synchronous transit methods to estimate reaction barriers and single point energy calculations for the reaction energy.

Atomic layer deposition (ALD) of copper films is getting enormous interest. Ultrathin Cu films are applied as the seed layer for electrochemical deposition (ECD) of copper in interconnect circuits and as the non-magnetic material for the realization of giant magnetoresistance (GMR) sensors. Particularly, Co/Cu multi-layered structures require sub 4.0 nm copper film thickness for obtaining strong GMR effects. The physical vapor deposition process for the deposition of the copper seed layers are prone to non-conformal coating and poor step coverage on side-walls and bottoms of trenches and vias, and presence of overhanging structures. This may cause failure of interconnections due to formation of voids after copper ECD. ALD is the most suitable technology for the deposition of conformal seed layers for the subsequent ECD in very high aspect ratio structures, also for the technology nodes below 20 nm. Surface chemistry during the ALD of oxides is quite well studied. However, surface chemistry during the ALD of pure metal is rather immature. This knowledge is necessary to optimize the process parameters, synthesize better precursors systems, and enhance the knowledge of existing metal ALD processes. The major goal of this work is to understand the surface chemistry of the used precursor and study the growth of ultrathin copper films using in-situ X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS). Copper films are deposited by ALD using the precursor mixture consisting of 99 mol% [(nBu3P)2Cu(acac)], as copper precursor and 1 mol% of Ru(η5 C7H11)(η5 C5H4SiMe3), as ruthenium precursor. The purpose in having catalytic amount of ruthenium precursor is to obtain the Ru doped Cu2O layers for subsequent reduction with formic acid at temperatures below 150 °C on arbitrary substrates. Two different approaches for the growth of ultrathin copper films have been studied in this dissertation. In the first approach, direct thermal ALD of copper has been studied by using H2 as co-reactant on Co as catalytic substrate. In the second approach, Ru-doped Cu2O is deposited by ALD using wet-O2 as co-reactant on SiO2 as non-catalytic substrate. The Ru-doped Cu2O is successfully reduced by using either formic acid or carbon-monoxide on SiO2. / Atomlagenabscheidung (ALD) von Kupfer steht im Fokus der ALD Gemeinschaft. Ultradünne Kupferschichten können als Keimschicht für die elektrochemische Abscheidung (ECD) von Kupfer in der Verbindungstechnologie eingesetzt werden. Sie können ebenfalls für Sensoren, welche auf den Effekt des Riesenmagnetowiderstandes (GMR) basieren, als nicht-ferromagnetische Zwischenschicht verwendet werden. Insbesondere Multischichtstrukturen aus ferromagnetische Kobalt und Kupfer erfordern Schichtdicken von weniger als 4,0 nm, um einen starken GMR-Effekt zu gewährleisten. Das derzeit verwendete physikalische Dampfabscheidungsverfahren für ultradünne Kupferschichten, ist besonders anfällig für eine nicht-konforme Abscheidung an den Seitenwänden und Böden von Strukturen mit hohem Aspektverhältnis. Des Weiteren kann es zur Bildung von Löchern und überhängenden Strukturen kommen, welche bei der anschließenden Kupfer ECD zu Kontaktlücken (Voids) führen können. Für die Abscheidung einer Kupfer-Keimschicht ist die ALD besonders gut geeignet, da sie es ermöglicht, ultradünne konforme Schichten auf strukturierten Oberflächen mit hohem Aspektverhältnis abzuscheiden. Dies macht sie zu einer der Schlüsseltechnologien für Struckturgrößen unter 20 nm. Im Gegensatz zur Oberflächenchemie rein metallischer ALD sind die Oberflächenreaktionen für oxidische ALD Schichten sehr gut untersucht. Die Kenntnis der Oberflächenchemie während eines ALD Prozesses ist essenziel für die Bestimmung von wichtigen Prozessparametern als auch für die Verbesserung der Präkursorsynthese ansich. Diese Arbeit beschäftigt sich mit der Untersuchung der Oberflächenchemie und Charakterisierung des Wachstums von ultradünnen Metall-Cu-Schichten mittels In-situ XPS, welche eines indirekten (Oxid) bzw. direkten Metall-ALD Prozesses abgeschieden werden, wobei die Kupfer-Oxidschichten im Anschluss einem Reduktionsprozess unterworfen werden. Hierfür wird eine Präkursormischung bestehend aus 99 mol% [(nBu3P)2Cu(acac)] und 1 mol% [Ru(η5 C7H11)(η5-C5H4SiMe3)] verwendet. Die katalytische Menge an Ru, welche in der entstehenden Cu2O Schicht verbleibt, erhöht den Effekt der Reduktion der Cu2O Schicht auf beliebigen Substraten mit Ameinsäure bei Wafertemperaturen unter 150 °C. In einem ersten Schritt wird ein direkter thermisches Kupfer ALD-Prozess, unter Verwendung von molekularem Wasserstoff als Coreaktant, auf einem Kobalt-Substrat untersucht. In einem zweiten Schritt wird ein indirekter thermischer Cu2O-ALD-Prozess, unter gleichzeitiger Verwendung von Sauerstoff und Wasserdampf als Coreaktant, mit anschließender Reduktion durch Ameinsäure oder Kohlenstoffmonoxid zu Kupfer auf den gleichen Substraten betrachtet. Die vorliegende Arbeit beschreibt das Wachstum von ultradünnen und kontinuierlichen Kupfer-Schichten mittels thermischer ALD auf inerten- SiO2 und reaktiven Kobalt-Substraten.

Four cluster models for a copper(I)oxide (111) surface have been designed, of which three were studied with respect to their applicability in density functional calculations in the general gradient approximation. Formic acid adsorption on these systems was modelled and yielded four different adsorption structures, of which two were found to have a high adsorption energy. The energetically most favourable adsorption structure was further investigated with respect to its decomposition and a few reactions with adsorbed H and OH species using synchronous transit methods to estimate reaction barriers and single point energy calculations for the reaction energy.:1 Introduction 1.1 Preliminary Work 1.2 Known Reactions and Issues 1.3 Overview of Reactions and Species involved in Formic Acid Decomposition 2 Theoretical Background 2.1 The Schrödinger-Equation 2.2 Density Functional Theory 2.3 Exchange-Correlation Functionals 2.4 The Self-Consistent-Field Procedure 2.5 Geometry Optimization and Transition State Searches 2.6 Kinetics 3 Computational Details 3.1 Synchronous Transit Schemes 3.2 Transition State Searches using Eigenvector Following 4 Model System 5 Results and Discussion 5.1 Geometry of the Cu2O cluster structures 5.2 Adsorption of formic acid 5.3 Decomposition and Reaction Paths 5.3.1 Vibrational Analysis of the adsorbed Formic Acid Molecule 5.3.2 Reaction Modelling using Linear Synchronous Transit 5.3.3 Transition State Searches using Eigenvector Following 6 Summary and Outlook

Atomic layer deposition (ALD) of copper films is getting enormous interest. Ultrathin Cu films are applied as the seed layer for electrochemical deposition (ECD) of copper in interconnect circuits and as the non-magnetic material for the realization of giant magnetoresistance (GMR) sensors. Particularly, Co/Cu multi-layered structures require sub 4.0 nm copper film thickness for obtaining strong GMR effects. The physical vapor deposition process for the deposition of the copper seed layers are prone to non-conformal coating and poor step coverage on side-walls and bottoms of trenches and vias, and presence of overhanging structures. This may cause failure of interconnections due to formation of voids after copper ECD. ALD is the most suitable technology for the deposition of conformal seed layers for the subsequent ECD in very high aspect ratio structures, also for the technology nodes below 20 nm. Surface chemistry during the ALD of oxides is quite well studied. However, surface chemistry during the ALD of pure metal is rather immature. This knowledge is necessary to optimize the process parameters, synthesize better precursors systems, and enhance the knowledge of existing metal ALD processes. The major goal of this work is to understand the surface chemistry of the used precursor and study the growth of ultrathin copper films using in-situ X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS). Copper films are deposited by ALD using the precursor mixture consisting of 99 mol% [(nBu3P)2Cu(acac)], as copper precursor and 1 mol% of Ru(η5 C7H11)(η5 C5H4SiMe3), as ruthenium precursor. The purpose in having catalytic amount of ruthenium precursor is to obtain the Ru doped Cu2O layers for subsequent reduction with formic acid at temperatures below 150 °C on arbitrary substrates. Two different approaches for the growth of ultrathin copper films have been studied in this dissertation. In the first approach, direct thermal ALD of copper has been studied by using H2 as co-reactant on Co as catalytic substrate. In the second approach, Ru-doped Cu2O is deposited by ALD using wet-O2 as co-reactant on SiO2 as non-catalytic substrate. The Ru-doped Cu2O is successfully reduced by using either formic acid or carbon-monoxide on SiO2. / Atomlagenabscheidung (ALD) von Kupfer steht im Fokus der ALD Gemeinschaft. Ultradünne Kupferschichten können als Keimschicht für die elektrochemische Abscheidung (ECD) von Kupfer in der Verbindungstechnologie eingesetzt werden. Sie können ebenfalls für Sensoren, welche auf den Effekt des Riesenmagnetowiderstandes (GMR) basieren, als nicht-ferromagnetische Zwischenschicht verwendet werden. Insbesondere Multischichtstrukturen aus ferromagnetische Kobalt und Kupfer erfordern Schichtdicken von weniger als 4,0 nm, um einen starken GMR-Effekt zu gewährleisten. Das derzeit verwendete physikalische Dampfabscheidungsverfahren für ultradünne Kupferschichten, ist besonders anfällig für eine nicht-konforme Abscheidung an den Seitenwänden und Böden von Strukturen mit hohem Aspektverhältnis. Des Weiteren kann es zur Bildung von Löchern und überhängenden Strukturen kommen, welche bei der anschließenden Kupfer ECD zu Kontaktlücken (Voids) führen können. Für die Abscheidung einer Kupfer-Keimschicht ist die ALD besonders gut geeignet, da sie es ermöglicht, ultradünne konforme Schichten auf strukturierten Oberflächen mit hohem Aspektverhältnis abzuscheiden. Dies macht sie zu einer der Schlüsseltechnologien für Struckturgrößen unter 20 nm. Im Gegensatz zur Oberflächenchemie rein metallischer ALD sind die Oberflächenreaktionen für oxidische ALD Schichten sehr gut untersucht. Die Kenntnis der Oberflächenchemie während eines ALD Prozesses ist essenziel für die Bestimmung von wichtigen Prozessparametern als auch für die Verbesserung der Präkursorsynthese ansich. Diese Arbeit beschäftigt sich mit der Untersuchung der Oberflächenchemie und Charakterisierung des Wachstums von ultradünnen Metall-Cu-Schichten mittels In-situ XPS, welche eines indirekten (Oxid) bzw. direkten Metall-ALD Prozesses abgeschieden werden, wobei die Kupfer-Oxidschichten im Anschluss einem Reduktionsprozess unterworfen werden. Hierfür wird eine Präkursormischung bestehend aus 99 mol% [(nBu3P)2Cu(acac)] und 1 mol% [Ru(η5 C7H11)(η5-C5H4SiMe3)] verwendet. Die katalytische Menge an Ru, welche in der entstehenden Cu2O Schicht verbleibt, erhöht den Effekt der Reduktion der Cu2O Schicht auf beliebigen Substraten mit Ameinsäure bei Wafertemperaturen unter 150 °C. In einem ersten Schritt wird ein direkter thermisches Kupfer ALD-Prozess, unter Verwendung von molekularem Wasserstoff als Coreaktant, auf einem Kobalt-Substrat untersucht. In einem zweiten Schritt wird ein indirekter thermischer Cu2O-ALD-Prozess, unter gleichzeitiger Verwendung von Sauerstoff und Wasserdampf als Coreaktant, mit anschließender Reduktion durch Ameinsäure oder Kohlenstoffmonoxid zu Kupfer auf den gleichen Substraten betrachtet. Die vorliegende Arbeit beschreibt das Wachstum von ultradünnen und kontinuierlichen Kupfer-Schichten mittels thermischer ALD auf inerten- SiO2 und reaktiven Kobalt-Substraten.