After almost two decades of research on direct repression by p53, I provide evidence that the transcription factor p53 solely acts as an activator of transcription. I evaluate the prominent models of transcriptional regulation by p53 based on a computational meta-analysis of genome-wide data. With this tool at hand, the major contradiction how p53 binding can result in activation of one target gene and repression of another is resolved. In contrast to most current models, solely genes activated by p53 are found to be enriched for p53 binding. Meta-analysis of large-scale data is unable to confirm reports on directly repressed p53 target genes and does not support models of direct repression. Consequently, as supported by experimental data, p53 is not a direct repressor of transcription, but solely activates its target genes. Moreover, models based on interference of p53 with activating transcription factors are also not supported by the meta-analysis. As an alternative to these models, the meta-analysis leads to the conclusion that p53 represses transcription indirectly by activation of the p53-p21- DREAM/RB pathway. Thus, results of the meta-analysis support only two models, namely activation by direct binding of p53 to target genes and repression through activating the p53-p21-DREAM/RB pathway.

In a quantitative study in 2007, Davenport found that autocratic military regimes statistically face a higher risk of electoral violence than authoritarian party-backed regimes. This thesis has attempted to link Davenports findings with theories on military belligerence presented by Lai and Slater (2006) as well as Geddes et al. (2014), and thereby contribute to our understanding of the matter by investigating the potential causal mechanisms connecting regime type and electoral violence. The analysis specifically focuses on differences in pre-election violence by comparing the 2008 election in Pakistan and the 2007 election in Uzbekistan. Evidence from the cases suggest that there is some support for a covariation between regime type and levels of pre-election violence, although there are alternative explanations worth considering before one can determine whether or not a causal relationship can be observed. Finally, the findings indicate that military regime belligerence or lack of knowledge on how to use nonviolent political repressive tools in order to sway the elections do not explain the observed variation. Rather, the thesis suggests that levels of pre-election violence is more likely to be affected by other conflicts in the region, the design of the election campaign and whether there are established influential opposition parties present in the country.

Listeria monocytogenes transporte le cellobiose principalement via le PTS (PEP:carbohydrate phosphotransferase system). La croissance sur cellobiose induit l'expression des opérons celBCA1, celBA2 ainsi que du gène lmrg_01989, qui codent respectivement le composant soluble EIIACel1, le transporteur EIICCel1, le composant soluble EIIBCel1, les protéines EIIBCel2 et EIIACel2, et une seconde EIICCel. La croissance sur glucose réprime fortement l'expression de ces gènes. La délétion de celC1 codant l'EIICCel1 ou des deux gènes, celA1 et celA2, ralentit considérablement la consommation cellobiose. L'expression des trois unités de transcription induite par le cellobiose dépend de CelR. CelR, qui code un régulateur transcriptionnel LevR- like, est situé en aval de l'opéron bicistronique celBA2. CelR est activé par phosphorylation par EI et HPr de l'His550. En revanche, la phosphorylation de l'His823, catalysée par P~EIIBCel1 et P~EIIBCel2, inhibe l'activité de CelR. Le remplacement de l'His823 par une Ala empêchant cette phosphorylation ou la délétion des deux gènes codants les EIIAsCel ou EIIBsCel entraîne l'expression constitutive des trois unités de transcription contrôlées par CelR. Comme le glucose, le cellobiose inhibe fortement l'activité de PrfA, l'activateur des gènes de virulence. Nous avons donc cherché à tester si l'un des composants PTSCel pouvait être impliqué dans la répression de gènes de virulence. Les mutants consommant faiblement le cellobiose, présentaient une levée de la répression des gènes de virulence par le cellobiose, alors que le glucose et les autres sucres-PTS les réprimaient toujours. De manière surprenante, la délétion du gène monocistronique lmrg_00557, qui code un autre composant EIIBCel du PTS, induisait la levée de la répression des gènes de virulence médiée par toutes les sources de carbone mais n'avait aucun effet sur la consommation de glucose ou de cellobiose. Ce gène lmrg_00557 a été appelé vgiB (virulence gene inhibitor B) et la protéine correspondante, qui semble jouer un rôle majeur dans la régulation de l'activité de PrfA, EIIBVir. Cette protéine est phosphorylée par le PEP et les composants PTS EI, HPr et EIIACel2 sur le résidu cystéine-8. La complémentation du mutant ΔvgiB avec l'allèle sauvage, mais également avec l'allèle Cys8Ala, restaurait le mécanisme général de répression des gènes de virulence par les sucres, suggérant ainsi que la forme non phosphorylée de EIIBVir inhibe l'activité de PrfA. / Listeria monocytogenes transports cellobiose mainly via a PEP:carbohydrate phosphotranseferase system (PTS). Growth on cellobiose induces the expression of the celBCA1 and celBA2 operons as well as lmrG01989, which encode the soluble EIIA Cel1 and EIIB Cel1 components, the transporter EIIC Cel1 , the EIIA Cel2 and EIIB Cel2 proteins, and a second EIIC Cel , respectively. Growth on lucose strongly repressed the expression of these genes. Deletion of the EIIC Cel1 –encoding celC1 or of both, celA1 and celA2, significantly slowed cellobiose consumption. The bicistronic operon celBA2 is located downstream from celR, which codes for a LevR-like transcription activator. Expression of the three cellobiose-induced transcription units depends on CelR. The gene encoding CelR is located upstream from the bicistronic operon celBA2. CelR itself is activated via phosphorylation by EI and HPr at His550. In contrast, phosphorylation at His823, which is catalyzed by both, P~EIIB Cel1 and P~EIIB Cel2 , inhibits CelR activity. Preventing this phosphorylation by replacing His823 with Ala or deleting the two EIIA Cel – or EIIB Cel -encoding genes caused constitutive expression of all three CelR-controlled transcription units. Similar to glucose, cellobiose strongly inhibits the activity of the virulence gene activator PrfA. We therefore tested whether one of the PTS Cel components might be involved in virulence gene repression. Mutants, that exhibit slow cellobiose consumption, were relieved from cellobiose-mediated virulence gene repression, whereas glucose and other PTS-sugars still repressed them. Strikingly, deletion of the presumed monocistronic lmrg_00557, which codes for another EIIB Cel -like PTS component, caused a general relief from carbon source-mediated virulence gene repression, but had no effect on cellobiose or glucose consumption. The gene lmrg_00557 was named vgiB (virulence gene inhibitor B) and the encoded protein, which seems to play a major role in PrfA regulation, was called EIIB Vir . It becomes phosphorylated by PEP and the PTS components enzyme I, HPr and EIIA Cel2 at cysteine-8. Complementation of the ΔvgiB mutant with wild-type vgiB, but also with the Cys8Ala allele restored general virulence gene repression, thus suggesting that it is the unphosphorylated form of EIIB Vir , which inhibits the activity of PrfA.

Refugee espionage, the act of spying on individuals to gather information for a foreign state, is illegal in Sweden. In this study, this phenomenon is considered part of transnational repression, an increasing threat against primarily dissidents posed by authoritarian states.  By using the method of qualitative content analysis on texts from the Swedish parliament and four large Swedish newspapers, the study attempts to answer questions about the debate on refugee espionage in the Swedish parliament and media. The timespan ranges from 2014- 2023. How do debaters talk about sovereignty and national security in relation to refugee espionage? Do debaters discuss the digital dimension: the opportunities, and risks from digital technology, in relation to refugee espionage?  The theoretical perspective is based on Lucas Kello’s cybertheory in international relations, on how cyberspace alters relations between states and has the possibility of expanding and enhancing ways to perform espionage.  Results reveal that debaters see refugee espionage as a threat to both Swedish sovereignty and national security. However, the debate rarely touches on concerns with digital technology as a mean to use refugee espionage against a state.

About 70% of breast tumors express the estrogen receptor alpha (ERα). Antiestrogens (AEs) are used to treat all stages of ER+ breast cancer. There are two types of AEs: Selective Estrogen Receptor Modulators (SERMs) and Selective Estrogen Receptor Downregulators (SERDs). SERMs such as Tamoxifen (Tam) have tissue-specific partial agonist activity, while SERDs such as Fulvestrant or Faslodex (ICI182, 780) fully repress estrogen target genes regardless of the tissue and cell type. Previously, it has been reported that SERDs induce ERα ubiquitination and degradation. ERα is also SUMOylated in the presence of SERDs. Abrogating SUMOylation of ERα using a deSUMOylase (SENP1) resulted in a partial de-repression of estrogen target genes in the presence of SERDs. Mapping the domains using deletion mutagenesis in the presence of ICI 182,780 showed that C-terminal domain (CDEF regions) is required of the ICI induced modification but not the N-terminal domain (AB region). Thus, a detailed dissection of the structural determinants for the selective action of SERDs on ERα SUMOylation and ubiquitination remained unknown. Our work shows that pure antiestrogens like ICI182,780 induce SUMOylation and ubiquitination of ERα but not ERβ in live cells. Utilizing the fact that domains of ERα and ERβ display sequence homology, we designed chimeras to map the minimal domain required for ERα modification in the presence of antiestrogens. Interestingly, swapping domains between ERα and ERβ showed that the Ligand Binding Domain (LBD) of ERα is sufficient to confer the induction of ERα modification in the presence of AEs such as Raloxifene (Ral) and ICI182,780. Further dissecting this region, we also found that helices 3 to 6 (H3H6) located in the LBD region is sufficient to confer the induction of SUMOylation and ubiquitination in the ICI182,780. Importantly, the lysine residues in this region between ERα and ERβ are conserved, which suggests that conformational differences in the LBD determine the capacity of ICI182, 780 bound ERα to be modified by SUMO and ubiquitin. Replacement of Leucine at position 536 in helix 12 (H12) of ERα’s LBD by a Valine residue or mutating Aspartate at position 351 abolished the increase in SUMOylation and ubiquitination observed in the presence of Ral. This suggested that Ral, a SERM, required a different set of determinants than ICI182,780 present in the LBD of ERα. vi Our work has also showed that saturating concentrations (increasing the amount of drug added will not result in a higher response) of ICI 182,780 modified and fully repressed constitutively active mutations such as Y537C, N or S and D538G. Other mutation such V534E and L536R/Q mutants exhibited some residual activity and were not modified in the presence of saturating concentrations of ICI182,780. Interestingly, the loss of SUMOylation correlated with the partial resistance to AEs. Structure function analysis of residues at position 536 indicates amino acids with a bulky hydrophobic side chain residue at this position result in preservation of ERα modifications in the presence of ICI 182,780. However, Using BRET-FECT, we have demonstrated that ERαwt/L536R heterodimerize and have intermediate levels of SUMOylation compared to ERαwt in the presence of ICI 182,780. Our results shed light onto the molecular basis for the diverse pharmacological properties of antiestrogens and should help guide the design of novel SERDs for breast cancer treatment. / Environ 70% des cancers du sein expriment le récepteur des oestrogènes alpha (ERα). Les anti-oestrogènes (AEs) sont utilisés pour traiter tous les stades de cancer du sein ER+. Il y a deux types d’AEs : les Selective ER Modulators (SERMs) et les Selective ER Downregulators (SERDs). Les SERMs, comme le Tamoxifen (Tam), ont une activité agoniste partielle tissu-spécifique, alors que les SERDs, tel Fulvestrant ou Faslodex (ICI182,780), répriment entièrement les gènes cibles d’ER, quel que soit l’organe ou le type cellulaire. Il a précédemment été montré que les SERDs induisent l’ubiquitination et la dégradation d’ERα. ERα est aussi SUMOylé en présence des SERDs. Supprimer la SUMOylation d’ERα en utilisant une déSUMOylase (SENP1) résulte en une dérépression partielle des gènes cibles d’ER en présence de SERDs. La délétion successive des différents domaines d’ERα en présence d’ICI182,780 a révélé que la région C-terminale (domaines CDEF) est requise pour la modification induite par ICI, mais pas la région N-terminale (domaines AB). Ainsi, la dissection détaillée des déterminants structuraux responsables de l’activité sélective des SERDs pour la SUMOylation et l’ubiquitination d’ERα reste à entreprendre. Nos travaux montrent que les AEs purs comme ICI182,780 induisent la SUMOylation d’ERα, mais pas d’ERβ, dans des cellules en culture. Tirant profit de l’homologie de séquences des différents domaines d’ERα et ERβ, nous avons conçu des chimères pour cartographier la région minimale requise pour la modification d’ERα en présence d’AEs. De manière intéressante, l’interversion des domaines d’ERα et ERβ a montré que le domaine de liaison au ligand (LBD) d’ERα est suffisant pour permettre l’induction de la modification d’ERα en présence d’AEs tels le Raloxifene (Ral) et ICI182,780. En décortiquant davantage ce domaine, nous avons trouvé que les hélices 3 à 6 (H3H6) du LBD sont suffisantes pour induire la SUMOylation et l’ubiquitination d’ERα en présence d’ICI182,780. De manière importante, les résidus Lysine de cette région sont conservées entre ERα et ERβ, ce qui suggère que des différences conformationnelles entre les deux LBD déterminent la capacité d’ERα lié par ICI182,780 d’être modifié par SUMO et l’ubiquitine. La mutation de la Leucine à la position 536 dans l’hélice H12 du LBD d’ERα par une Valine, ou la mutation de l’Aspartate à la position 351 abolissent l’augmentation de la SUMOylation et l’ubiquitination observée en présence de iv Ral. Cela suggère que Ral, un SERM, requière différents déterminants structuraux du LBD d’ERα qu’ICI182,780. Nos travaux ont aussi montré que des concentrations saturantes (l’augmentation de la quantité de drogue ajoutée ne mènera pas à une réponse plus élevée) d’ICI182,780 modifient et répriment entièrement des mutants constitutivement actifs d’ERα comme Y537C, N ou S et D538G. D’autres mutants, tels V534E et L536R/Q, présentent une activité résiduelle et ne sont pas modifiés sous traitement avec des concentrations saturantes d’ICI182,780. De façon intéressante, la perte de SUMOylation corrèle avec la résistance partielle aux AEs. Une analyse structure – fonction des résidus à la position 536 indique que les acides aminés avec une chaine latérale hydrophobe volumineuse à cette position permettent de préserver les modifications d’ERα en présence d’ICI182,780. Cependant, en utilisant la technique BRET-FECT, nous avons démontré que les récepteurs ERα sauvage et L536R forment un hétérodimère qui présente des niveaux intermédiaires de SUMOylation en présence d’ICI182,780. Nos résultats révèlent les bases moléculaires des diverses propriétés pharmacologiques des AEs et devraient aider à guider la conception de nouveaux SERDs pour le traitement des cancers du sein.

Abounding acts of repression committed in democracies have continued to be overlooked and under-analyzed by many researchers and scholars due to "democratic exceptionalism". As the United States enters yet another consecutive year of declining political satisfaction and freedom. It has become pertinent that as conflict study researchers, scholars, and readers alike that there is a basic understanding of coercion including acts that have been committed within our own countries. Countless scholars have focused conflict study research on underdeveloped or emerging democracies, yet many have overlooked the seamy side of developed ones. This article aims to explain the relationship between the United States and state-sponsored repression from the 1990s to 2015. In hopes to better understand how variables like economic, social, and political vulnerabilities as well as race and sex influence repressive trends in the United States. In addition, this article hopes to extend the scope of conflict study research by including mass incarceration as a form of repression that has been used to control not only dissent but also satisfy the needs of elites to maintain a present state of affairs. This article tests various hypothesis to understand how repression continues to function in modern American society.