Although the importance of Attachment in the normal development of a child has repeatedly been shown (Bowlby, 1961; 1979) there is a limited amount of research into its relationships with the usage of defense mechanisms and emotions. This research, therefore, investigated the relationships between attachment type, defense mechanisms and emotions during middle childhood (8-12 years) in 64 children from 4 children’s homes and 1 hospital in the Gauteng area. The children completed the Deferential Emotions Scale IV (DES-IV), the Attachment Story Completion Test (ASCT) and the Attachment Security Scale (ASS). The legal guardians of the children completed the Comprehensive Assessment of Defense Scale (CADS). Significant correlations were found to exist between the usage defense mechanisms and emotions. The results obtained from the analyses therefore suggest a complex interplay of relationships between attachment, defense mechanisms and emotion during middle childhood for the children in these institutions. For example, the research found that certain defense mechanisms and emotions were found to be correlated in a complex and interrelated system of interactions. Similarly, although no significant associations were found between attachment, defense mechanisms and emotions were found, the frequency distributions provided detailed information suggesting that attachment does influence the defenses used and emotion during middle childhood. These finding suggest that further research needs to be conducted in this area to further this knowledge base and to inform the caregivers and staff at institutions such as those included in the study.

O presente estudo teve como objetivo investigar como que psicólogos de Orientação Psicanalítica realizam a avaliação dos Mecanismos de Defesas de crianças durante a Entrevista Lúdica Diagnóstica. Foram conduzidos dois momentos de entrevistas, sendo que o primeiro caracterizou-se por uma entrevista semiestruturada sobre a técnica de Entrevista Lúdica Diagnóstica e sobre os mecanismos de defesas com 19 psicólogas. No segundo momento, foi realizada a apresentação de um vídeo – caso clínico – de uma sessão de Entrevista Lúdica Diagnóstica para duas psicólogas, que deveriam identificar momentos de uso de mecanismos de defesa. O conteúdo das entrevistas foi analisado de acordo com a técnica de Análise de Conteúdo de Bardin (2011). Os resultados indicaram que as participantes, possuem em média 27,15 anos de formadas, sendo que 100% possuíam curso de especialização em Psicologia, 78,94% mestrado, 21% doutorado e 42,10% possuíam Formação Psicanalítica. Os autores/teóricos que embasam a atuação dessas profissionais mais citados foram: Melanie Klein, Donald W. Winnicott, Arminda Aberastury, Sigmund Freud, Antonino Ferro e Wilfred Bion. A análise de conteúdo das falas das entrevistadas apontou para sete categorias, a saber, “Influência do Tripé Psicanalítico na Avaliação dos Mecanismos de Defesa”, “Expressão e Identificação dos Mecanismos de Defesa na Prática Clínica”, “Uso da Entrevista Lúdica Diagnóstica para Avaliar os Mecanismos de Defesa”, “Dificuldades de Explicar o Modo de Avaliação dos Mecanismos de Defesa”, “Forma Como os Pacientes Lidam com os Mecanismos de Defesa”, “Adequação dos Mecanismos de Defesa à Faixa Etária e Sexo” e “Materiais Utilizados na Avaliação dos Mecanismos de Defesa”. Algumas refletem a dificuldade das participantes em expressar de forma didática o surgimento dos mecanismos de defesas na entrevista com crianças ou, até mesmo, de saber identificar os mecanismos de defesas que são fundamentais para estabelecer o funcionamento de crianças durante as sessões. Outras ressaltam a importância de conhecer profundamente as etapas do desenvolvimento infantil para poder identificar e analisar a pertinência dos mecanismos de defesas que se fizeram presentes. Os achados nessa pesquisa vão ao encontro da teoria de autores clássicos e contemporâneos, no entanto, a escassez de estudos ficou evidente, ainda mais quando relacionado com a importância dos mecanismos de defesas na vida infantil e sua expressão no brincar durante a Entrevista Lúdica Diagnóstica. / The present study aimed to investigate how Psychoanalytic psychologists investigate the mechanisms Defenses in children during a Diagnostic interview. We conducted two stages of interviews, the first of which was characterized by a interview about the technique of Diagnostic interview and the mechanisms defense with 19 psychologists. In the second, there was the presentation of a tape - case study - a session Diagnostic interview for two psychologists, who should identify times of use of defense mechanisms. The content of the interviews was analyzed according to the technique of content analysis of Bardin (2011). The results indicated that the participants have an average of 27.15 years of formed, and 100 % had specialization course in Psychology, 78.94 % master's degree, 21 % doctorate and 42.10 % had Psychoanalytic Training. The authors / theorists that support the work of these professionals most frequently cited were: Melanie Klein, Donald W. Winnicott, Arminda Aberastury, Sigmund Freud, Antonino Ferro and Wilfred Bion. The content analysis of the interviews carried out pointed to seven categories , namely , "Influence of the Psychoanalytic Tripod rating Defense Mechanisms" , "Expression and Identification of the Mechanisms of Defense Clinical Practice", "Use of Diagnostic Interview for Assessing Ludic Mechanisms of Defense", "Difficulties in Explaining Mode Evaluation of Defense Mechanisms", "Shape How Patients Cope with the Defense Mechanisms", "Adaptation of Defense Mechanisms for Age Group and Gender" and "Materials Used in assessment of Defense Mechanisms". Some of the participants reflect the difficulty in expressing didactically the emergence of defense mechanisms in the interview with children or even to know identify defense mechanisms that are fundamental to establish the functioning of children during the sessions. Others emphasize the importance of knowing deeply the stages of child development in order to identify and examine the relevance of defense mechanisms that were present. The findings in this research are in the theory of classical and contemporary authors, however, the scarcity of studies was evident, especially when considering the importance of defense mechanisms in early life and its expression in play during Diagnostic Interview.

A avaliação de criminosos sexuais por psiquiatras e psicólogos forenses consiste em atividade específica que envolve desafios intelectuais e emocionais aos peritos. Esses profissionais trabalham diretamente com indivíduos que cometeram atos graves, que violaram o corpo e as emoções de suas vítimas, de modo profundo, estando expostos ao risco de trauma vicário, um subtipo de trauma psicológico indireto. Pouco se sabe, entretanto, sobre as repercussões desse tipo de avaliação na vida pessoal e profissional dos peritos. Assim, a tese aqui apresentada tem o objetivo de examinar as associações entre sentimentos contratransferenciais desencadeados por criminosos sexuais, mecanismos de defesa e manifestações do trauma vicário em psiquiatras e psicólogos forenses. A primeira etapa desse trabalho consistiu na revisão da literatura acerca de contratransferência e sua expressão no setting pericial, mecanismos de defesa e trauma vicário, tendo sido realizado um estudo exploratório com peritos psiquiatras. Ao se verificar que a versão brasileira da escala de avaliação de trauma vicário - a Trauma and Attachment Belief Scale (TABS) – ainda não se encontrava disponível, um estudo foi realizado para sua tradução, adaptação transcultural e validação aparente. Em seguida, o estudo principal, com delineamento transversal e utilizando métodos mistos, foi conduzido com 56 psiquiatras e psicólogos forenses brasileiros, entre outubro de 2016 e maio de 2017. Reações contratransferenciais, mecanismos de defesa e trauma vicário foram avaliados usando a Escala de Avaliação de Contratransferência (ACS), o Defensive Style Questionnaire (DSQ-40) e a TABS, respectivamente. A grounded theory (GT) foi utilizada na análise qualitativa, através de um questionário auto-aplicado, a fim de compreender a influência da avaliação de agressores sexuais na vida profissional e pessoal dos peritos. Correlações positivas foram identificadas entre sentimentos de indiferença e trauma vicário e entre mecanismos de defesa imaturos e trauma vicário. Essas correlações foram muitos fortes no subgrupo de peritos sem história de psicoterapia pessoal. A investigação qualitativa demonstrou que ocorreram mudanças na identidade profissional dos peritos, na visão de mundo e nas crenças relacionadas à segurança e confiança. Concluiu-se que estratégias específicas maladaptativas de enfrentamento, tais como sentimentos de indiferença e defesas imaturas, durante a avaliação de criminosos sexuais, estiveram associadas com manifestações de trauma vicário em psiquiatras e psicólogos forenses. / The assessment of sex offenders by forensic psychiatrists and psychologists consists in a specific activity that involves intelectual and emotional challenges to experts. These professionals work directly with individuals who have committed serious acts that violated the body and emotions from their victms, in a profound way, being exposed to the risk of vicarious trauma (VT), a subtype of indirect psychological trauma. Little is known, however, about the implications of this type of assessment in personal and professional lives of experts. Thus, the thesis presented here aims to examine the associations between countertransference reactions aroused by sex offenders, defense mechanisms and manifestations of vicarious trauma in forensic psychiatrists and psychologists. The first step of this work consisted in a review of literature about countertransference and it’s expression in a forensic setting, defense mechanisms and vicarious trauma, and we have conducted an exploratory study with forensic psychiatrists. Since it was verified that a Brazilian version of the assessment scale of vicarious trauma - the Trauma and Attachment Belief Scale (TABS) - was not yet available, a study was performed for its translation, cross-cultural adaptation, and apparent validation. Then, the main study, using a cross-sectional design and mixed methods, was conducted with 56 Brazilian forensic psychiatrists and psychologists, between October 2016 and May 2017. Countertransference reactions, defense mechanisms and vicarious trauma were assessed using the Assessment of Countertransference Scale (ACS), the Defensive Style Questionnaire (DSQ- 40) and the TABS, respectively. The grounded theory (GT) was used in qualitative analysis, by means of a self-report questionnaire, in order to understand the influence of the assessment of sexual aggressors in professional and personal life of experts. Positive correlations were found between feelings of indifference and vicarious trauma and between immature defense mechanisms and vicarious trauma. These correlations were very strong in a subgroup of experts without a history of personal psychotherapy. Qualitative data showed changes in the professionals’ identity, worldview and beliefs related to safety and trust. It was concluded that specific maladaptive coping strategies such as feelings of indifference and immature defenses during the assessment of sex offenders were associated with manifestations of vicarious trauma in forensic psychiatrists and psychologists.

This research explored the systems psycho-dynamics or group dynamics manifesting in meetings of a self-managed group within a bank. It also investigated the influence of these dynamics on the group's intra- and intergroup relationships.. The literature review explored the dynamics manifesting in groups in general, and reviewed relevant research that has been conducted. A qualitative study explored how these dynamics are manifesting in this group and how they are influencing the intra- and intergroup relationships. The results indicate that there are complex system psycho-dynamics manifesting in this self-managed group. They are influencing its intra- and intergroup relationships and rendering the group less effective in terms of its achieving its primary task. / Industrial and Organisational Psychology / MA (Industrial and Organisational Psychology)

A avaliação de criminosos sexuais por psiquiatras e psicólogos forenses consiste em atividade específica que envolve desafios intelectuais e emocionais aos peritos. Esses profissionais trabalham diretamente com indivíduos que cometeram atos graves, que violaram o corpo e as emoções de suas vítimas, de modo profundo, estando expostos ao risco de trauma vicário, um subtipo de trauma psicológico indireto. Pouco se sabe, entretanto, sobre as repercussões desse tipo de avaliação na vida pessoal e profissional dos peritos. Assim, a tese aqui apresentada tem o objetivo de examinar as associações entre sentimentos contratransferenciais desencadeados por criminosos sexuais, mecanismos de defesa e manifestações do trauma vicário em psiquiatras e psicólogos forenses. A primeira etapa desse trabalho consistiu na revisão da literatura acerca de contratransferência e sua expressão no setting pericial, mecanismos de defesa e trauma vicário, tendo sido realizado um estudo exploratório com peritos psiquiatras. Ao se verificar que a versão brasileira da escala de avaliação de trauma vicário - a Trauma and Attachment Belief Scale (TABS) – ainda não se encontrava disponível, um estudo foi realizado para sua tradução, adaptação transcultural e validação aparente. Em seguida, o estudo principal, com delineamento transversal e utilizando métodos mistos, foi conduzido com 56 psiquiatras e psicólogos forenses brasileiros, entre outubro de 2016 e maio de 2017. Reações contratransferenciais, mecanismos de defesa e trauma vicário foram avaliados usando a Escala de Avaliação de Contratransferência (ACS), o Defensive Style Questionnaire (DSQ-40) e a TABS, respectivamente. A grounded theory (GT) foi utilizada na análise qualitativa, através de um questionário auto-aplicado, a fim de compreender a influência da avaliação de agressores sexuais na vida profissional e pessoal dos peritos. Correlações positivas foram identificadas entre sentimentos de indiferença e trauma vicário e entre mecanismos de defesa imaturos e trauma vicário. Essas correlações foram muitos fortes no subgrupo de peritos sem história de psicoterapia pessoal. A investigação qualitativa demonstrou que ocorreram mudanças na identidade profissional dos peritos, na visão de mundo e nas crenças relacionadas à segurança e confiança. Concluiu-se que estratégias específicas maladaptativas de enfrentamento, tais como sentimentos de indiferença e defesas imaturas, durante a avaliação de criminosos sexuais, estiveram associadas com manifestações de trauma vicário em psiquiatras e psicólogos forenses. / The assessment of sex offenders by forensic psychiatrists and psychologists consists in a specific activity that involves intelectual and emotional challenges to experts. These professionals work directly with individuals who have committed serious acts that violated the body and emotions from their victms, in a profound way, being exposed to the risk of vicarious trauma (VT), a subtype of indirect psychological trauma. Little is known, however, about the implications of this type of assessment in personal and professional lives of experts. Thus, the thesis presented here aims to examine the associations between countertransference reactions aroused by sex offenders, defense mechanisms and manifestations of vicarious trauma in forensic psychiatrists and psychologists. The first step of this work consisted in a review of literature about countertransference and it’s expression in a forensic setting, defense mechanisms and vicarious trauma, and we have conducted an exploratory study with forensic psychiatrists. Since it was verified that a Brazilian version of the assessment scale of vicarious trauma - the Trauma and Attachment Belief Scale (TABS) - was not yet available, a study was performed for its translation, cross-cultural adaptation, and apparent validation. Then, the main study, using a cross-sectional design and mixed methods, was conducted with 56 Brazilian forensic psychiatrists and psychologists, between October 2016 and May 2017. Countertransference reactions, defense mechanisms and vicarious trauma were assessed using the Assessment of Countertransference Scale (ACS), the Defensive Style Questionnaire (DSQ- 40) and the TABS, respectively. The grounded theory (GT) was used in qualitative analysis, by means of a self-report questionnaire, in order to understand the influence of the assessment of sexual aggressors in professional and personal life of experts. Positive correlations were found between feelings of indifference and vicarious trauma and between immature defense mechanisms and vicarious trauma. These correlations were very strong in a subgroup of experts without a history of personal psychotherapy. Qualitative data showed changes in the professionals’ identity, worldview and beliefs related to safety and trust. It was concluded that specific maladaptive coping strategies such as feelings of indifference and immature defenses during the assessment of sex offenders were associated with manifestations of vicarious trauma in forensic psychiatrists and psychologists.

O presente estudo teve como objetivo investigar como que psicólogos de Orientação Psicanalítica realizam a avaliação dos Mecanismos de Defesas de crianças durante a Entrevista Lúdica Diagnóstica. Foram conduzidos dois momentos de entrevistas, sendo que o primeiro caracterizou-se por uma entrevista semiestruturada sobre a técnica de Entrevista Lúdica Diagnóstica e sobre os mecanismos de defesas com 19 psicólogas. No segundo momento, foi realizada a apresentação de um vídeo – caso clínico – de uma sessão de Entrevista Lúdica Diagnóstica para duas psicólogas, que deveriam identificar momentos de uso de mecanismos de defesa. O conteúdo das entrevistas foi analisado de acordo com a técnica de Análise de Conteúdo de Bardin (2011). Os resultados indicaram que as participantes, possuem em média 27,15 anos de formadas, sendo que 100% possuíam curso de especialização em Psicologia, 78,94% mestrado, 21% doutorado e 42,10% possuíam Formação Psicanalítica. Os autores/teóricos que embasam a atuação dessas profissionais mais citados foram: Melanie Klein, Donald W. Winnicott, Arminda Aberastury, Sigmund Freud, Antonino Ferro e Wilfred Bion. A análise de conteúdo das falas das entrevistadas apontou para sete categorias, a saber, “Influência do Tripé Psicanalítico na Avaliação dos Mecanismos de Defesa”, “Expressão e Identificação dos Mecanismos de Defesa na Prática Clínica”, “Uso da Entrevista Lúdica Diagnóstica para Avaliar os Mecanismos de Defesa”, “Dificuldades de Explicar o Modo de Avaliação dos Mecanismos de Defesa”, “Forma Como os Pacientes Lidam com os Mecanismos de Defesa”, “Adequação dos Mecanismos de Defesa à Faixa Etária e Sexo” e “Materiais Utilizados na Avaliação dos Mecanismos de Defesa”. Algumas refletem a dificuldade das participantes em expressar de forma didática o surgimento dos mecanismos de defesas na entrevista com crianças ou, até mesmo, de saber identificar os mecanismos de defesas que são fundamentais para estabelecer o funcionamento de crianças durante as sessões. Outras ressaltam a importância de conhecer profundamente as etapas do desenvolvimento infantil para poder identificar e analisar a pertinência dos mecanismos de defesas que se fizeram presentes. Os achados nessa pesquisa vão ao encontro da teoria de autores clássicos e contemporâneos, no entanto, a escassez de estudos ficou evidente, ainda mais quando relacionado com a importância dos mecanismos de defesas na vida infantil e sua expressão no brincar durante a Entrevista Lúdica Diagnóstica. / The present study aimed to investigate how Psychoanalytic psychologists investigate the mechanisms Defenses in children during a Diagnostic interview. We conducted two stages of interviews, the first of which was characterized by a interview about the technique of Diagnostic interview and the mechanisms defense with 19 psychologists. In the second, there was the presentation of a tape - case study - a session Diagnostic interview for two psychologists, who should identify times of use of defense mechanisms. The content of the interviews was analyzed according to the technique of content analysis of Bardin (2011). The results indicated that the participants have an average of 27.15 years of formed, and 100 % had specialization course in Psychology, 78.94 % master's degree, 21 % doctorate and 42.10 % had Psychoanalytic Training. The authors / theorists that support the work of these professionals most frequently cited were: Melanie Klein, Donald W. Winnicott, Arminda Aberastury, Sigmund Freud, Antonino Ferro and Wilfred Bion. The content analysis of the interviews carried out pointed to seven categories , namely , "Influence of the Psychoanalytic Tripod rating Defense Mechanisms" , "Expression and Identification of the Mechanisms of Defense Clinical Practice", "Use of Diagnostic Interview for Assessing Ludic Mechanisms of Defense", "Difficulties in Explaining Mode Evaluation of Defense Mechanisms", "Shape How Patients Cope with the Defense Mechanisms", "Adaptation of Defense Mechanisms for Age Group and Gender" and "Materials Used in assessment of Defense Mechanisms". Some of the participants reflect the difficulty in expressing didactically the emergence of defense mechanisms in the interview with children or even to know identify defense mechanisms that are fundamental to establish the functioning of children during the sessions. Others emphasize the importance of knowing deeply the stages of child development in order to identify and examine the relevance of defense mechanisms that were present. The findings in this research are in the theory of classical and contemporary authors, however, the scarcity of studies was evident, especially when considering the importance of defense mechanisms in early life and its expression in play during Diagnostic Interview.

This essay argues that repression and defense mechanisms contribute to the unreliability of Stevens’ narrationthrough three aspects: Stevens’ uncertainty of certain memories, his failure to report certain scenescorrectly and his defensive, self-contradictory discourse. There is no single best way to define what is consideredreliable and what is unreliable in narratology because the complexity of fictional characters will renderdifferent kinds of unreliability. This essay detects three kinds of unreliability of Stevens corresponding to thethree aspects mentIoned above: the first kind results from the untrustworthiness of our memory, the secondkind is the contradiction between the voice of the narrator and the other characters and the third kind lieswithin the narrative discourse. The unreliability of Stevens’ narration attributes to repression and defensemechanisms. The five kinds of defense mechanisms analyzed in the essay are selective memory, denial,projection, reaction formation and rationalization. In order to defend his self-image as a great butler, Stevenslies to or hides from himself and tries to avoid acknowledging certain undesirable thoughts or emotions. Eventhough Stevens becomes more reliable as he gains more self-realization during the road trip, his defensesare still on.

A avaliação de criminosos sexuais por psiquiatras e psicólogos forenses consiste em atividade específica que envolve desafios intelectuais e emocionais aos peritos. Esses profissionais trabalham diretamente com indivíduos que cometeram atos graves, que violaram o corpo e as emoções de suas vítimas, de modo profundo, estando expostos ao risco de trauma vicário, um subtipo de trauma psicológico indireto. Pouco se sabe, entretanto, sobre as repercussões desse tipo de avaliação na vida pessoal e profissional dos peritos. Assim, a tese aqui apresentada tem o objetivo de examinar as associações entre sentimentos contratransferenciais desencadeados por criminosos sexuais, mecanismos de defesa e manifestações do trauma vicário em psiquiatras e psicólogos forenses. A primeira etapa desse trabalho consistiu na revisão da literatura acerca de contratransferência e sua expressão no setting pericial, mecanismos de defesa e trauma vicário, tendo sido realizado um estudo exploratório com peritos psiquiatras. Ao se verificar que a versão brasileira da escala de avaliação de trauma vicário - a Trauma and Attachment Belief Scale (TABS) – ainda não se encontrava disponível, um estudo foi realizado para sua tradução, adaptação transcultural e validação aparente. Em seguida, o estudo principal, com delineamento transversal e utilizando métodos mistos, foi conduzido com 56 psiquiatras e psicólogos forenses brasileiros, entre outubro de 2016 e maio de 2017. Reações contratransferenciais, mecanismos de defesa e trauma vicário foram avaliados usando a Escala de Avaliação de Contratransferência (ACS), o Defensive Style Questionnaire (DSQ-40) e a TABS, respectivamente. A grounded theory (GT) foi utilizada na análise qualitativa, através de um questionário auto-aplicado, a fim de compreender a influência da avaliação de agressores sexuais na vida profissional e pessoal dos peritos. Correlações positivas foram identificadas entre sentimentos de indiferença e trauma vicário e entre mecanismos de defesa imaturos e trauma vicário. Essas correlações foram muitos fortes no subgrupo de peritos sem história de psicoterapia pessoal. A investigação qualitativa demonstrou que ocorreram mudanças na identidade profissional dos peritos, na visão de mundo e nas crenças relacionadas à segurança e confiança. Concluiu-se que estratégias específicas maladaptativas de enfrentamento, tais como sentimentos de indiferença e defesas imaturas, durante a avaliação de criminosos sexuais, estiveram associadas com manifestações de trauma vicário em psiquiatras e psicólogos forenses. / The assessment of sex offenders by forensic psychiatrists and psychologists consists in a specific activity that involves intelectual and emotional challenges to experts. These professionals work directly with individuals who have committed serious acts that violated the body and emotions from their victms, in a profound way, being exposed to the risk of vicarious trauma (VT), a subtype of indirect psychological trauma. Little is known, however, about the implications of this type of assessment in personal and professional lives of experts. Thus, the thesis presented here aims to examine the associations between countertransference reactions aroused by sex offenders, defense mechanisms and manifestations of vicarious trauma in forensic psychiatrists and psychologists. The first step of this work consisted in a review of literature about countertransference and it’s expression in a forensic setting, defense mechanisms and vicarious trauma, and we have conducted an exploratory study with forensic psychiatrists. Since it was verified that a Brazilian version of the assessment scale of vicarious trauma - the Trauma and Attachment Belief Scale (TABS) - was not yet available, a study was performed for its translation, cross-cultural adaptation, and apparent validation. Then, the main study, using a cross-sectional design and mixed methods, was conducted with 56 Brazilian forensic psychiatrists and psychologists, between October 2016 and May 2017. Countertransference reactions, defense mechanisms and vicarious trauma were assessed using the Assessment of Countertransference Scale (ACS), the Defensive Style Questionnaire (DSQ- 40) and the TABS, respectively. The grounded theory (GT) was used in qualitative analysis, by means of a self-report questionnaire, in order to understand the influence of the assessment of sexual aggressors in professional and personal life of experts. Positive correlations were found between feelings of indifference and vicarious trauma and between immature defense mechanisms and vicarious trauma. These correlations were very strong in a subgroup of experts without a history of personal psychotherapy. Qualitative data showed changes in the professionals’ identity, worldview and beliefs related to safety and trust. It was concluded that specific maladaptive coping strategies such as feelings of indifference and immature defenses during the assessment of sex offenders were associated with manifestations of vicarious trauma in forensic psychiatrists and psychologists.

In the 1949 play The Death of a Salesman, Arthur Miller depicts a man that goes through life without ever really understanding his own place in it. Willy Loman spends his life chasing a dream yet lacks the ability to achieve it. Instead of trying to learn about himself, his abilities, and find goals more suited for him, he stubbornly insists on chasing grand and misinterpreted dreams woven by others. He commits his life to fantasies and coerces his family to follow him on a course towards failure and tragedy. This thesis seeks to analyze the behavior of the lead character of the play with the help of the psychoanalytic theories of Jacques Lacan. The analysis seeks to explain how Willy’s behavior affects the lives of his family members as well as his own, with a focus on the language of the play.

L'utilisation de molécules stimulatrices de défense des plantes (SDP), également appelées inducteurs de résistance, constitute une alternative possible aux traitements fongicides conventionnels pour contrôler les maladies dues aux chanpignons phytopathogènes. Dans cette étude, nous avons mis en évidence que trois produits à caractère SDP (FSOV2, FSOV7 et FSOV10) protègent le blé (Triticum aestivum L.) contre la septoriose (Mycosphaerella graminicola, anamorphe Zymoseptoria tritici) lorsqu'ils sont utilisés de façon préventive, mais cette protection dépend fortement du cultivar considéré. Les cultivars Alixan, Premio et Altigo testés ici présentaient au départ des niveaux de résistance distincts à la septoriose. Les protections obtenues ne sont pas liées à un effet direct sur la germination des spores du champignon, mais à l'induction des mécanismes de défense chez le blé qui réduisent la nécrose foliaire et la sporulation du champignon. Ainsi, l'observation des différents stades du processus infectieux de M. graminicola en microscopie et le dosage des activités enzymatiques fongiques de dégradation des parois (CWDE) in planta révèlent que le niveau de protection induite varie avec le SDP appliqué et avec le cultivar traité. L'expression de neuf gènes impliqués dans différentes voies de défense, suivi par RTqPCR, et les activités enzymatiques peroxydase et phénylalanine ammonia lyase ont été mesurée au cours du temps, depuis le traitement par les SDP jusqu'à 5 jours après infection. Les résultats obtenus montrent, que les mécanismes de défense sont induits différemment en fonction du cultivar et en fonction du SDP appliqué. Ces résultats suggèrent que la réussite au champ des SDP est conditionnée de façon déterminante par le choix du couple SDP-cultivar. / The use of resistance inducers (RI) is a potential alternative to conventional fungicide treatments against plant fungal diseases. In the present study, we revealed that preventive applications of three RI conferred protection efficacies against M. graminicola, with protection levels varying with the wheat cultivar. Alixan, Premio and Altigo cultivars were previously known to exhibit distinct resistance levels to M. graminicola. The observed protections did not result from a direct effect on spore germination, but were related to the induction of wheat defense mechanisms. The induced resistances reduced foliar necrosis, as well as the sporulation level of the fungus. Microscopic observations of the infection process of M. graminicola and cell wall degrading enzymes (CWDE) activities measured in planta showed that the applied RI as well as the considered treated wheat cultivar influences the impact on the infection process and the protection efficacy. We investigated from the time of treatment until 5 days after inoculation plant peroxidase and phenylalanine ammonia lyase activities and the expression of nine genes involved in distinct defense pathways. Our results indicated that defense mechanisms are differently induced according both to the wheat cultivar and the RI. Therefore, the successful use of RI at the field level strongly depends on the RI-cultivar combination.