In the year of 2013, Swedish media accused the Swedish police for the implementation of discriminatory internal controls of foreigners, in Malmö, Stockholm and other places across Sweden. The controls were soon to be linked to project REVA. In this thesis, I examine how the internal controls of foreigners measure up to the Swedish Aliens act and whether or not the accusations of discriminatory controls against individuals with a perceived foreign appearance, are correct. The examination includes a legal approach, where I use practical legal method to analyze the provisions of the Aliens act, as well as an evolving conceptual approach, where I evolve the concept of discrimination in order to apply it to the controls. I found that it is possible to link project REVA to the external work with the internal controls of foreigners, despite the denial from people involved. I also found that, because of unclear regulations regarding the implementation of the internal controls of foreigners, it is not possible to assess how the controls measure up to the Swedish Aliens act. Some of the controls, most probably, can be identified as directly and indirectly discriminatory. The problem with this statement is the difficulty to measure police officers decision-making in order to confirm the discriminatory behavior. However, I argue that it is possible to claim that the Aliens act might be indirectly discriminatory. The results of this thesis indicate that the Swedish police should review their practices regarding internal controls of foreigners.

Šiame darbe yra analizuojami darbo teisiniai santykiai ir teisės normos reguliuojančios diskriminacijos dėl lyties draudimą sudarant ar nutraukiant darbo santykius. Siekiant kuo išsamiau atskleisti šią temą pirmiausiai yra nagrinėjamas lygybės principas, iš kurio yra kildinamas diskriminacijos draudimo (nediskriminacinis) principas, kuris yra įtvirtintas tiek Lietuvos, tiek tarptautiniuose teisės aktuose. Lygybės ir diskriminacijos draudimo principais draudžiama taikyti skirtingus įdarbinimo kriterijus, skirtingas darbo sąlygas, atleidimo iš darbo pagrindus, tokius pat santykius vertinti skirtingai dėl aplinkybių, kurios nesusijusios su darbuotojo dalykinėmis savybėmis. Diskriminacija darbo teisinių santykių srityje yra suprantama kaip bet koks lygias darbo ir profesinės veiklos galimybes ir lygiateisius santykius pažeidžiantis arba panaikinantis išskyrimas, apribojimas ar pranašumo teikimas. Kitaip tariant, bet koks skirtingas darbuotojų traktavimas dėl jų lyties, kurio pasekmės – nelygios teisės darbo santykiuose, pvz. : tam tikros darbo sąlygos, paaukštinimas pareigose, kvalifikacijos kėlimas yra laikomas diskriminacija. Toliau aptariami nacionaliniai ir tarptautiniai antidiskriminaciniai įstatymai. Diskriminacijos dėl lyties draudimą Lietuvoje numato 1998 m. gruodžio 1 d. įsigaliojęs Moterų ir vyrų lygių galimybių įstatymas kuris buvo priimtas, siekiant įgyvendinti 2006 m. liepos 5 d. Europos Parlamento ir Tarybos direktyvą 2006/54/EB dėl... [toliau žr. visą tekstą] / This paper analyzes the legal labour relations and the laws, regulating the prohibition of gender discrimination in establishing or terminating the labour relations. In order to reveal this theme in as more details as possible, first the principle of equality is examined, where the prohibition of discrimination (discriminatory) principle is derived from. The latter is established in both Lithuanian and international law. The principles of equality and non-discrimination allows the application of different employment criteria, different working conditions, bases of dismissal from work, to treat the same relations differently due to the circumstances, unrelated with employee’s professional characteristics. Discrimination in the field of legal labour relations is understood as any exclusion, restriction or superiority, violating or voiding the equal employment and career opportunities, and the equal relations. In other words, any different treatment of employees because of their gender, the consequences of which include unequal rights in labour relations, for example, certain working conditions, promotion, training, is considered as discrimination. The paper also discusses a number of persons, who are subject to protection against gender discrimination, in legal labour relations. It should be noted that it includes all the persons, belonging to the following groups of labour relations category: employees, self-employed persons, persons, who wish to occupy a vacancy... [to full text]

Att göra en meritvärdering är svårt, särskilt när det gäller faktorn personlig lämplighet – en bedömningsgrund som är relativt svårmätt och som både Diskrimineringsombudsmannen och Arbetsdomstolen ser risker med. Det huvudsakliga syftet med uppsatsen är att utreda vilket utrymme den svenska lagstiftningen ger arbetsgivare i Sverige att i en rekryteringssituation ta hänsyn till arbetssökandes personliga lämplighet utan att göra sig skyldig till direkt diskriminering. Även frågan huruvida det finns en risk för att arbetsgivares möjlighet att lägga vikt vid personlig lämplighet i större utsträckning drabbar kvinnor i arbetsledande befattningar negativt än män i arbetsledande befattningar ämnas analyseras. Uppsatsen anlägger ett analytiskt perspektiv, med grund i rättsdogmatisk metod men med användning av teori om ledarskap och kön. Bland annat används lagförarbeten, lagtext och rättspraxis. Arbetsgivare i Sverige har en bibehållen fri anställningsrätt, men med de begränsningar som diskrimineringsförbudet medför. De anses alltid ha ett befogat intresse avatt den person som rekryteras ska vara lämplig för den sökta tjänsten och har rätt att ta hänsyn till att arbetet ska utföras på ett så effektivt och bra sätt som möjligt. Personliga egenskaper ska dock tillmätas betydelse bara då det verkligen spelar roll för tjänstens utövande, och detställs bland annat krav på att meritvärderingen ska göras på ett objektivt och ur diskrimineringslagstiftningens perspektiv godtagbart sätt. Det normala sättet att inhämta uppgifter om arbetssökandes personliga lämplighet anses vara att kontakta referenser som har relevant personlig vetskap om den arbetssökande. Arbetsgivaren ska dessutom värdera uppgifterna på ett sakligt och objektivt sätt. Arbetsgivare har likväl rätt att tillmäta de iakttagelser som denne själv gör vid en eventuell anställningsintervju stor betydelse, under förutsättning att den gått korrekt till. Det finns dock gränser för vad arbetsgivare får lägga vikt vid i sin bedömning av arbetssökandes personliga lämplighet vad gäller bland annat arbetssökandes tidigare beteende. Många har stereotypa uppfattningar om manligt och kvinnligt beteende. Kvinnliga ledare bedöms vara mindre effektiva än sina manliga kollegor trots att båda agerar exakt lika och samma egenskap kan uppfattas som negativ hos en kvinna men positiv hos en man. Arbetsgivares möjlighet att lägga vikt vid personlig lämplighet riskerar följaktligen att i större utsträckning drabba kvinnor i arbetsledande befattningar negativt än män med samma position, eftersom arbetsgivare då också får möjlighet att tillämpa stereotypa uppfattningar vid meritvärderingen – vilket missgynnar kvinnor. / It is a difficult thing to do an assessment of qualifications, particularly when it comes to the factor “suitability as a person” - a criterion that isn’t easily measured and which according to both the Swedish Equality Ombudsman and the Labour Court causes some concerns. The general purpose of this paper is to map out which space Swedish law gives employers in Sweden, in a recruitment situation, to take into account the job applicants’ suitability as a person for employment, without risking being guilty of direct discrimination. Whether there is a legitimate concern that employers' opportunity to consider the job applicants’ suitability as a person for the position can negatively impact women in leadership positions to a larger extent than men in the same positions, will also be analyzed. An analytical perspective, with a legal dogmatic method and use of theory of leadership and sex, is being applied. Among other things, legislative work, law and case law is being used. Employers in Sweden have a maintained right to freely employ, but the prohibition to discriminate sets some limits. They always have a legitimate interest that the person being recruited will be suitable for the advertised employment, and are entitled to take in account that the work should be performed in the most effective and the best way possible. However, personal qualities are allowed importance in the assessment of qualifications only when they really have an impact in the performance of the duties associated with the position. Also, the assessment of qualifications should be done in an objective and according to discrimination law acceptable way. The normal procedure of obtaining information on a job applicant's suitability as a person is to contact references who have relevant personal knowledge of the job applicant. The employer must also evaluate the information in an objective way. Employers are nevertheless entitled to give the observations being done in the event of a job interview great importance, if the interview was correctly performed. However, there are limitations to what employers may include in the evaluation of the job applicant's suitability as a person, for example when it comes to his or her former behavior. A lot of people have stereotype opinions about male and female behavior. Female leaders are believed to be less effective than their male colleagues, notwithstanding both are acting exactly the same way. Also, the same quality is being described as negative if being held by a woman but positive if a man has it. Employers' ability to give personal suitability importance in the assessment of qualifications therefore causes a concern that women in leadership positions will be more widely negatively affected than men with the same position, since employers then are being given an opportunity to apply stereotype opinions to the assessment of qualifications – which disfavors women.

La gestion d’une entreprise expose l’employeur au risque de discrimination. Dans son acception originelle, la notion de discrimination vise les distinctions reposant sur un critère illicite. La mise en oeuvre effective de la prohibition des discriminations amène le juge à exiger de l’employeur qu’il justifie de façon pertinente ses décisions. L’entreprise est sommée de développer des outils lui permettant d’apprécier de manière objective les compétences de ses salariés. Au-delà de cet objectif initial, la lutte contre les discriminations doit dorénavant faciliter l’intégration d’un public défavorisé. Les notions d’égalité professionnelle, de diversité, d’actions positives et de discriminations indirectes font aujourd’hui parti du vocabulaire des entreprises. Bien qu’elles ne disposent pas toujours de leviers d’action efficaces pour agir, les pouvoirs publics les contraignent à négocier sur certains thèmes pour résorber les inégalités. L’employeur responsable ne peut ignorer cette métamorphose du concept de discrimination. Il doit déterminer les nouvelles frontières de ce risque afin de mettre en oeuvre les dispositifs adéquats pour faire obstacle à sa réalisation. / Managing a company incurs a risk of discrimination for the employer. In its original meaning, the notion of discrimination refers to distinctions based on an illegal criterion. To be effective, the prohibition of discriminations brings the judge to require that the employer give pertinent justifications of his/her decisions. The company is compelled to develop means of assessing in an objective manner employees’ professional skills. Beyond this initial objective, the fight against discriminations must now ease the integration of disadvantaged populations. The notions of equal access to employment, diversity, affirmative action and indirect discrimination are now part of companies’ vocabulary. Though companies do not always have effective leverage for action, public authorities force them to negotiate on certain subjects in order to reduce inequalities. A responsible employer cannot ignore this radical change in the concept of discrimination. He/she must now setthe new boundaries to this risk so as to implement adequate means to prevent its materializing.

The thesis called "Reasons for restricting of the free movement of services" is focused on one of the fundamental freedoms of internal market, free movement of services, both in terms of theory and especially from the perspective of The Court of Justice of the European Union. In five chapters of the thesis is analysed the general characteristics of the free movement of services, the relationship to the other freedoms of the internal market and the legal basis of this freedom in the primary and secondary legislation of the European Union. First chapter is focused on historical development of the internal market of European Union and on principles on which internal market operates. Second chapter of this thesis defines the term "services" and examine the relationship to the other freedoms of the internal market as well as the legal basis of the free movement of services in the primary and secondary legislation of the European Union. Third chapter of the thesis is focused on the restrictions of the free movement of services, direct and indirect discrimination, non- discriminatory restrictions and also on the harmonization of standards. Forth chapter examine legitimate restriction of the free movement of services both in the primary and secondary legislation of the European Union. Purpose of the last...

Mit dem Begriff Diskriminierung wird der benachteiligende, herabsetzende oder abwertende Umgang mit Personen, die (imaginierten) gesellschaftlichen Gruppen zugeordnet werden, beschrieben. Diesem gehen psychologische Dynamiken der Stereotypisierung sowie historisch komplexe soziale Prozesse und Strukturen der Differenzierung und Hierarchisierung voran. Aufgrund sozialer, politischer und wissenschaftlicher Auseinandersetzungen ist Diskriminierung mittlerweile nicht nur als (Menschen-)Rechtsverletzung anerkannt, sondern permanent Gegenstand von Kontroversen über die (Il-)Legitimität von (Un-)Gleichbehandlung.

There have been three main sets of trends in the case law of the Court of Justice of the European Union in the field of the internal market after 2004. The first set of trends concerned the criteria of legal analysis, i.e. the scope of EU rules on free movement, the concept of the restriction of free movement and the justification of such restrictions. The second set of trends in the case law is related to the fact that the Court completes its legal analysis by considerations linked to its value orientation of the Court, i.e. its liberalism, social tendencies, protection of fundamental rights, pragmatism and proactivity. The third trend in the case law of the internal market consisted in changing the focus of case law in the sense that the Court has begun to deal with more and more cases from sectoral fields, i.e. fields covered by secondary law.