Esta dissertação de mestrado, como indica o próprio título, tem como objetivo pesquisar, descrever e analisar a concepção de literatura presente nos discursos dos manuais didáticos produzidos entre os anos de 1970 e 1990. Dentro do corpus selecionado ¾ manuais didáticos do ensino médio ¾, o enfoque da pesquisa se dará nos capítulos em que estes procuram conceituar a literatura. Dessa forma, este trabalho ¾ não pressupondo a existência de uma concepção de literatura fixa, natural e estável, como se esta pudesse ser anterior a qualquer discurso e independente da contingência histórica ¾ parte da hipótese de que tal concepção seria antes uma construção discursiva em que outros discursos são retomados, simplificados, aglutinados, generalizados, etc. Nesse sentido, a perspectiva teórica da análise do discurso, especificamente a que pode ser depreendida da obra de Michel Foucault (A ordem do discurso e A arqueologia do saber), fundamentará esta análise. / This dissertation aims at discussing the concept of literature that can be found in High School textbooks produced between the years 1970 and 1990. The main trait of this research is to analyze the chapters that try to define what literature is. This work - not assuming the existence of a rigid, natural and fixed concept of literature, as if this notion could exist apart from any discourse and from any historical contingence - assumes that this concept would be a discoursive construction in which others discourses are retaken, simplified, agglutinated, generalized, etc. Therein, the theoretical perspective of the analysis of the discourse, specially the one that derives from the work of Michel Foucault ( The Discourse on Language and The Archaelogy of Knowledge ) will lay the foundation of the present analysis.

This thesis is the result of an investigation into the representations of the Jew that existed in the English Catholic discourse during the final years of the nineteenth- and the early decades of the twentieth-century (1896-1929). As very little has been written about English Catholic representations of the Jew during this timeframe, the primary aim of this project has been to excavate a layer of discourse which, with the exception of the published works of a few prominent individuals, has hitherto remained largely unexamined. In order to increase our understanding of the English Catholic discourse as much as possible, a wide range of sources have been examined, including the published works of prominent, obscure and anonymous authors, the pastoral letters and sermons of cardinals, bishops and priests, articles and editorials in English Catholic newspapers and periodicals, pamphlets, personal correspondence, letters to the editors of newspapers, unpublished documents and a small number of oral testimonies. Three main types of representation of the Jew have been uncovered in this project: the roles assigned to the Jew in traditional Christian myths, contemporary stereotypes of the Jew, and composite constructions which combine themes drawn from myths and stereotypes. Representations of the Jew which originated in traditional Christian myths include the Jew as Pharisee, Christ-Killer, fanatical murderer, diabolic sorcerer and Antichrist. Contemporary stereotypes portray the Jew as usurious, cowardly, unpatriotic and secretive. Composite constructions combining themes from traditional myths and contemporary stereotypes include the Jew-Freemason conspirator and the Zionist Menace. The material examined reveals that representations of the Jew in the late nineteenth- and early twentieth-century were not always modern in character. In the case of the English Catholic discourse, they were often pre-modern or anti-modern. Many existing studies of English antisemitism argue that by the late nineteenth century, constructions of the Jew based on traditional Christian myths had largely, though not entirely, been replaced by modern socio-political and racial forms of antisemitism. This study however demonstrates that traditional religious myths about the Jews continued to thrive and function in the English Catholic discourse. Their continued existence was not confined to a handful of narrative artefacts from a bygone era. English Catholic constructions of the Jew combined these persistent Christian myths with other more contemporary social stereotypes, though surprisingly, the one element that was usually absent from these constructions was "race." Jews were rarely denigrated as racially inferior in the English Catholic discourse and there were few references to biology or pseudo-scientific "race" theories. They were however portrayed as greedy, cowardly, disloyal and secretive villains and diabolized as Pharisees, Christ-Killers, fanatical murderers, sorcerers and Antichrists. In some cases the language used to describe the Jew, the Pharisee, the Zionist and the Jew-Freemason, drew upon a vocabulary which suggested an apocalyptic conflict between the forces of good and evil.

哲學家多認為日常關于語意的陳述 (如:「單身漢」意即未婚男性)乃事實陳述，陳述語義事實。這些哲學家大都還認為語義事實有物理基礎。對此本文提出兩重反駁。首先，語義事實並無物理基礎，因此 (物理主義認為)根本不存在語義事實。其次，日常語義話語既不陳述語義事實，也不要求語義事實存在，而應理解為一種虛構。第一章論證第一點 (基于Kripke的論證，但据本文目的作了適當裁剪):任何具備表徵能力的物理系統皆等價於擁有某一獨特、確定功能的機器;若語義事實有物理基礎，則功能事實當有物理基礎，但功能事實並無物理基礎。第二章首先論證日常語義話語不要求語義事實存在 (因我們對其存在與否實無所謂)，其次論證虛構話語 (如「Crotone在意大利的足弓上」)乃理解日常語義話語的最佳模型。將語義話語理解為虛構，非但合理可信，且多有啟發。本文結論認為，自然主義本身雖毋庸置疑，尋求自然主義的意義/表徵理論卻是緣木求魚。 / Many philosophers believe that the folk talk of meaning (e.g. “ ‘Bachelor’ means unmarried man“) states facts about meaning, or semantic facts. Most of them further believe that these facts are grounded in the physical reality. I argue against both views: (1) there are no semantic facts, insofar as they must be physically grounded; (2) meaning-talk does not state semantic facts, is not committed to them, and should instead be understood as a kind of make-believe. Chapter 1 presents an argument for (1), rst expounded (I think) by Kripke and here modied for my purpose. The argument is that any physical system with any representational capacity at all can be regarded as having a unique, determinate function; thus if representation--hence meaning--is physically grounded, so must be the function; but no such function can be physically grounded. Chapter 2 argues, rst, that meaning-talk does not commit us to semantic facts because we are indifferent to their existence. Second, that make-believe utterances (e.g. “Crotone is on the arch of the Italian boot“) more than any other discourse provide a good model for meaning-talk. Construing meaning-talk as make-believe is plausible and illuminating. I conclude that, while naturalism (I believe) is true, the attempt to naturalise meaning and representation is misguided. / Detailed summary in vernacular field only. / Shen, Jian. / Thesis (M.Phil.)--Chinese University of Hong Kong, 2012. / Includes bibliographical references (leaves 83-85). / Abstracts also in Chinese. / Abstract --- p.i / Acknowledgements --- p.iii / Table of Contents --- p.iv / Introduction --- p.1 / The First Thesis --- p.1 / The Second Thesis --- p.6 / Chapter 1 --- To Repudiate an Ontology --- p.9 / Chapter 1.1 --- Argument for Semantic Anti-Realism --- p.9 / Chapter 1.1.1 --- Premise One --- p.12 / Chapter 1.1.2 --- Premise Two --- p.14 / Chapter 1.2 --- Naturalisers’ Program --- p.19 / Chapter 1.2.1 --- Against Dretske --- p.24 / Chapter 1.2.2 --- Against Millikan --- p.28 / Chapter 1.2.3 --- Against Fodor --- p.35 / Chapter 1.3 --- An Exegetical Appendix --- p.39 / Chapter 2 --- While Enjoying Its Benefit --- p.43 / Chapter 2.1 --- Argument for Non-Commitment --- p.43 / Chapter 2.2 --- Another Argument for Non-Commitment --- p.44 / Chapter 2.2.1 --- Objections and Replies --- p.46 / Chapter 2.3 --- The Fictionalist Hypothesis --- p.60 / Chapter 2.3.1 --- Searching for a Model --- p.60 / Chapter 2.3.2 --- Why the Model Is Good --- p.65 / Chapter 2.3.3 --- Other Models --- p.71 / Chapter 2.3.4 --- Objections and Replies --- p.73 / Conclusion --- p.82 / Bibliography --- p.83

Orientador: Marina Célia Mendonça / Banca: Ana Lúcia Furquim Campos Toscano / Banca: Assunção Aparecida Laia Cristóvão / Resumo: Fundamentado na perspectiva teórica do Círculo de Mikhail Bakhtin e através da análise de projetos editoriais e publicidades audiovisuais do jornal Folha de S. Paulo, o presente trabalho visou a ampliar a discussão em relação à noção de dialogismo entre gêneros diferentes e de esferas de atividade diferentes. O interesse principal desta pesquisa foi analisar, por meio do viés dialógico, como os valores, principalmente os relacionados à comunicação e à informação, são retratados em gêneros distintos. Com o intuito de alcançar o objetivo proposto, nós depreendemos, dos enunciados das publicidades que contemplam o córpus da dissertação, marcas, ideias e valores sobre a informação, e depois cotejamos esses aspectos com os aspectos encontrados nos enunciados dos projetos editoriais. Procuramos entender de que maneira se constrói a informação nesses discursos, observar aquilo que é considerado na constituição do saber discursivo. Por ser sempre ideológico, coexistem, nos signos, inúmeras contradições ideológico-sociais e ecoam diversas vozes. Portanto, cada palavra possui um grande emaranhado de significados distintos, complementares e, muitas vezes, totalmente antagônicos. Partindo da ideia defendida por Bakhtin de que as palavras são um signo linguístico e ideológico, estabelecemos duas categorias de análise para chegarmos ao resultado final da pesquisa, são elas: a imagem da Folha de S. Paulo e a vozes sociais que se manifestam nos discursos do córpus da dissertação. Embasados nesses resultados, olhamos para a informação no âmbito dos enunciados concretos e atentamos para a plurivalência social dos signos / Abstract: Based on the theoretical perspective of Mikhail Bakhtin's Circle and through analysis of audiovisual advertising and editorial projects of the newspaper Folha de S. Paulo, the present work aimed to broaden the discussion regarding the notion of dialogism between different genres and different spheres of activity. The main interest of this research was to examine, through the dialogical bias, how the values, especially those related to communication and information, are portrayed in different genres. In order to achieve the proposed goal, we inferred, from the advertising's statements, that include the corpus of the dissertation, marks, ideas and values about the information, and then we compared these aspects with aspects founded in the statements of editorial projects. We seek to understand how information is constructed in these discourses, to observe what is considered in the discursive constitution of knowledge. For being always ideological, coexist, in signs, numerous social-ideological contradictions and echo diverse voices. Therefore, each word has a big tangle of distinct meanings, complementary and often totally antagonistic. Starting from the idea advocated by Bakhtin that the words are a linguistic and ideological sign, two categories of analysis are established to arrive at the final result of the research, they are: the image of the Folha de S. Paulo and the social voices that appear in the speeches of the dissertation corpus. Based upon these results, we look at the information listed under the concrete statements and we pay attention for the social polyvalence of the signs / Mestre

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This dissertation investigates the social construction and discursive emergence of US nuclear weapons policy against the backdrop of the nuclear taboo and its associated anti-nuclear discourse. The analysis is drawn from poststructuralism with a focus on the discourses that construct the social world and its attendant “common sense,” and makes possible certain policies and courses of action while foreclosing others. This methodology helps overcome the overdetermined nature of foreign policy, or its tendency to be driven simultaneously by the international strategic environment, the domestic political environment, and powerful domestic organizations, and while being shaped and delimited by the discourses associated with the nuclear taboo. I apply this method to three different cases of presidential administration policymaking: Eisenhower, Reagan, and George W. Bush. In each, the analysis illuminates the coherent discourses that emerged, crystallized, and either became policy, or were usurped by competing discourses and their associated policies. I follow the actions of key actors as they stitched together existing discourses in new ways to create meaning for nuclear weapons and the US arsenal, as well as to limit what could and should be done with that arsenal. The case studies reveal the content of the strategic international, domestic political, organizational, and normative bases of US nuclear weapons policy. These results suggest that most challenges to the nuclear policy status quo emerge from new presidents whose own discourse is built upon personal conviction and critiques of their predecessors. Upon taking office, these sources compete with discourses emerging from organizations, especially the nuclear weapons complex, and anti-nuclear forces including: activists, the scientific community, the international public, US allied governments, and the US public. It was this political conflict and confrontation that made possible the pattern of nuclear weapons policy that characterized each administration. This work points to the strength of the nuclear taboo, and the effort that must be expended for its associated discourses to impact presidential policymaking. This insight provides an opening for managing the nuclear threat posed by the Trump administration’s new nuclear weapons policy.

As it is generally conceived, knowledge belongs to the individual: we imagine how a lightbulb suddenly illuminates above the scientist's head, a muse whispers in the philosopher's ear, cogs slide into place as wheels turn in the thinker's mind, and, "Eureka!" an idea is born. As an individualistic experience, knowledge is secure in the repository of the mind, a "steel trap" as it is so often referred, which can only be breached by the most sophisticated and precise methods. From these popular representations of knowledge, one can extrapolate further to conclude that knowledge is not made, it is received. All of these metaphors of knowledge present a passive subject waiting for knowledge to be imparted from the Cosmos. Much like knowledge, a disability and, reflexively, the knowledge of disability, is an individually sited matter; disability is something to be had, possessed, or owned, not shared. Similar to knowledge, disability is not actively produced, it just "is." And disability, too, is internally located, often being attributed as the outcome of physiological malfunction. It follows then, that because both knowledge and disability are separately regarded as individualistic phenomena, as located with(in) the individual, and as existing independently of him or her, that knowledge of disability would also share these characteristics. This study's objective, however, is to prove just the opposite: to position disability as a form of knowledge, and therefore, the knowledge of disability as the endpoint of an ongoing process of social interaction. I use discourse analysis to analyze interviews conducted with staff members of a university office responsible for providing academic accommodations to students with disabilities, in conjunction with documents authored and disseminated by this organization. My study conceives discourse as language in action. By this I mean that discourse creates the very social structures it is presumed to describe. I also understand discourse as reflexive, meaning that embedded within discourse are larger social and moral norms. Believing that analyzing discourse allows for normative beliefs on knowledge and disability to be clearly displayed, I ask the following questions: By what assumptions do members organize disability in their daily practice? What role does communication play in these processes of social organization? What resources or forms of evidence are necessary to determine, to produce knowledge of, disability? And does everyone have equal access to these resources? This study's findings hold broad implications for diverse stakeholders. For the field of Communication, this study affirms the need for revised ways of understanding communication, as it shows how antiquated ideations of communication as a linear exchange of information narrowly define what counts as knowledge. Additionally, this study also contributes to Disability Studies in that rather than arguing disability as a social artifact from an exclusively conceptual standpoint, it empirically makes a case for disability as the product of social interaction. For the organizational members consulted in this study, I offer recommendations for their praxis. The final, and arguably the most important, party that this study has implications for is the student with a disability. Because this study promotes a more inclusive approach to disability, and because it encourages a lesser burden of proof with respect to knowing disability, this study is of particular interest to the individuals who are classified as "disabled."

Military oriented publications Army Times and Veterans of Foreign Wars publish stories praising wounded warriors returning to duty. This praise complicates the conception of masculinity and ability among service-members. One reading of Judith Butler’s chapter “Bodies that Matter” aids understanding how the military forms bodies of service-members and how these bodies overcome injury. Simi Linton criticizes this rhetoric of overcoming as oppressive, and Garry B. Trudeau’s illustrated narrative The Long Road Home: One Step at a Time offers a positive alternative to reenlisting. This alternative resists this militaristic rhetoric, which will lead to detrimental consequences. The military forms civilians into service-members, andButler’s reading of Plato’s masculine autogenesis applies to the formation of service-members. Military and civilian audiences accept this reproduction of service-members, andButler’s resistance to Plato serves individuals and society. Linton’s critique of the rhetoric of overcoming also serves individuals and society. This rhetoric causes distress among individuals with disabilities, and if the military and society embrace this rhetoric, individuals with and without disabilities will suffer. Fortunately, Trudeau diverts this rhetoric of overcoming. His narrative reminds audiences a return to civilian life does not end one’s masculinity. Rehabilitation and recovery require dedication and focus, two virtues gained through military training and service. As members of society, we need to recognize the detrimental affects of this rhetoric of return. If we accept this conception of masculinity, it will influence our understanding of masculinity and ability, which will then permeate throughout society.