My diploma thesis deals with doping and is specially focused on anabolic steroids. It was written in response to § 288 Criminal code, which newly describes production and other handling with hormonal effect as a delict in order to reduce the number of users, both among proffesional and among recreational sportsmen. It shows that sport federations have enough instruments to be able to face doping and that the newly adopted legal ragulation has a negative impact on human health, which is inconsistent with the reasons for which it was adopted.

In this thesis we examined the influence of the institutional changes and the implication of the financial evaluation of athletes (level and structure) on the level of dosing athletes. The most important moments in the history of the anti-doping fight were founding of WADA (World Anti-Doping Agency) and the acceptance of the law against doping. Hypothesis 1 examined, if the founding of WADA (standardization of the anti-doping fight among countries) have had an influence on the decrease of the level of dosing athletes in these countries. According to the regression analysis we can say that the foundation of WADA had have the influence on the level of dosing athletes, but not in the direction we supposed. Some countries adopted the anti-doping law, which led us to formulate the Hypothesis 2: the level of doping athletes has been decreasing since the acceptance of this law. Due to econometric analysis we cannot support this hypothesis. We stated two more hypotheses in the chapter dedicated to the financial evaluation of athletes. Hypothesis 3, that the sport with a lot of supporters (in consequence lot of sponsors) is less prone to doping, we can support. Last hypothesis of this thesis is Hypothesis 4 and states that the level of the doping is influenced by the structure of the athlete evaluation. We cannot accept this hypothesis after the consideration of the available data set.

The purpose of this study was to investigate people’s knowledge about the negative health effects associated with doping, and people’s attitudes towards doping in general. Two groups of people were studied, competitive athletes that compete in organized sports and regular exercisers who just train for a good health. Regarding the negative health effects of doping, the study mostly consists of the use of anabolic steroids since they have the most serious negative health effects. I chose a quantitative study and made a questionnaire survey. Questions were asked about the respondent’s attitudes towards doping and what negative health effects they thought doping could cause. The result of the survey shows that most of the people, but not everyone, were clearly opposed to the use of doping. They thought it was cheating and they knew it was harmful to people’s health. The respondents also knew of several negative health effects that can occur from doping use. My conclusion of the study is that a clear majority, of both competing athletes and regular exercisers, are against doping in all its forms, and that they are aware that doping is harmful to people’s health, and what some of these negative  health effects can be.

La présente thèse intitulée « La privatisation du droit : l’exemple de la lutte contre le dopage » s’inscrit dans la cadre du droit transversal constitué de droits horizontaux qui enveloppent tout en les interpénétrant l’ensemble des branches dites « classiques » du droit. Mêlant philosophie du droit et régulation d’un secteur méconnu dans son versant juridique, elle questionne le phénomène moderne de normalisation résidant dans l’adoption de textes au contenu généralement volumineux faits de dispositions d’interprétations souvent multiples, qui sont édictés par des acteurs privés ou semi-privés issus de la société nationale, internationale ou transnationale. C’est encore de pluralisme juridique dont il est question dès lors qu’il est traité dans ces travaux de l’ordre juridique transnational antidopage au sein duquel l’Agence mondiale antidopage (AMA) se meut, organisme statutairement de droit privé, qui émet des règles de conduites qui, bien que substantiellement ou matériellement publiques, constituent formellement des normes privées. Cette Agence édicte ainsi le document fondamental antidopage qu’est le Code mondial antidopage (CMA) envisageant des règles harmonisées de cette nature obligatoirement reprises par les organisations sportives privées de tous niveaux dont la gestion du contentieux incombe en principe au seul tribunal arbitral du sport (TAS). Il sera néanmoins vérifié à la mesure de l’impact de ces normes et justices privées, l’écran étatique demeurant en droit interne français comme dans le domaine pénal en général, que la normalisation privée présente une influence certaine dans le domaine antidopage, opérant une forme de novation de la « soft law » en « droit dur ». / The present thesis entitled « Privatization of the law : the example of the fight against doping » is part of the transversal right constituted of horizontal rights which envelop while interpenetrating all the so-called "classical" branches of law. Combining the philosophy of law and the regulation of an unknown sector in its juridical side, it questions the modern phenomenon of normalization residing in the adoption of generally voluminous texts made of provisions of often multiple interpretations, which are enacted by private actors or semi-private from the national, international or transnational society. It is still a question of legal pluralism, since it deals with the transnational anti-doping legal order in which the World Anti-Doping Agency (WADA) operates, a statutory body governed by private law, which issues rules of conduct which, although substantially or materially public, formally constitute private standards. This Agency thus enacts the fundamental anti-doping document that is the World Anti-Doping Code (WADC) considering harmonized rules of this nature compulsorily taken up by private sports organizations of all levels whose management of litigation falls in principle with the sole court of arbitration for sport (CAS). Nevertheless, it will be checked to the extent of the impact of these norms and private justices, the state screen remaining in French domestic law as in the criminal field in general, that the private standardization has a certain influence in the anti-doping field, operating a novation form of « soft law » into « hard law ».

Dans le but d’intégrer des technologies CMOS avec des cellules mémoires, une seule étape de siliciuration de tous les contacts permettrait de diminuer les couts et de faciliter l’intégration. La formation de siliciure simultanément au niveau des sources, drains et grilles avec du NiPt(10 at.%) est nécessaire pour la technologie FD-SOI parce que cette dernière induit des spécifications exigeantes en ce qui concerne la siliciuration. En effet, le siliciure formé avec le procédé Salicide se doit d’être très fin et stable pour contenir le phénomène de diffusion anormale du Ni qui pourrait être à l’origine de fuites de la jonction. De plus, la réduction des dimensions des cellules mémoires nécessite l’incorporation de dopants d’une manière alternative à l’implantation ionique. L’introduction de dopage au phosphore de manière in-situ pendant le dépôt de silicium nécessite la compréhension de l’interaction du siliciure et des dopants. Dans cette étude, différents types de dopage sont étudiés dans des substrats mono et poly-cristallins afin de correspondre aux multiples types de silicium qui sont présents dans les technologies et qui nécessitent une siliciuration. La redistribution du phosphore entraînée par la formation du siliciure est étudiée et discutée à l’aide de caractérisations par sonde atomique tomographique et spectrométrie de masse à ionisation secondaire à temps de vol. De plus, la réaction à l’état solide est étudiée à l’aide de diffraction par rayons-X afin de comprendre l’impact des dopants sur la séquence de phases. Finalement, la redistribution des dopants observée expérimentalement est étayée par des simulations basées sur un modèle par éléments finis / For the purpose of co-integrating the CMOS technology with memory cells, a unique step of silicidation of all the contacts would decrease costs and ease the integration. The simultaneous silicide formation on the source, drain and gate contacts with NiPt(10 at.%) is required for the FD-SOI technology because the latter induces challenging specifications for the silicidation. As a matter of fact, the silicide formed with the Salicide process must be very thin and stable to contain the NiSi piping phenomenon that could lead to junction leakage. Meanwhile, new integration roads and the reduction of the dimensions of the memory cells arise the need of other ways of dopant incorporation as a substitute to ionic implantation. The introduction of phosphorus by in-situ doping during the deposition of silicon requires the understanding of the interaction of silicide and dopants with this configuration. In this study the metallization of phosphorus doped Si is presented. Different doping types are investigated with mono and poly-crystalline substrates in order to match the various silicon layers needing a silicidation and present in the technologies. The phosphorus redistribution occurring during silicide formation is studied and discussed thanks to Atom Probe Tomography and Time-of-Flight Secondary Ion Mass Spectrometry analyses. Moreover, the solid-state reaction is studied thanks to X-Ray diffraction to understand the dopants’ impact on the phase sequence. Finally, the dopant redistribution is analyzed thanks to modeling

The ever-increasing demand for superior devices with a smaller footprint in electronics calls for research on novel materials as a potential replacement of or integration to the existing silicon-based technology. The emergence of two-dimensional semiconductors paved a promising path in this direction. Easy isolation of atomically thin and flat layers with dangling bond free surfaces enables these materials to not only form 2D vertical heterostructures with novel properties but also facilitates advanced transistor, diode, and tunnel-device design with characteristics such as unprecedented gate-control of the channel, extremely high mobility of charge carriers, high current density, and high on-off ratios. However, like any other technology at the early development phase, 2D semiconductor research also faces numerous challenges which are needed to be addressed. In this work, we address two such challenges in the field–modeling of vertical electrostatics in these complex novel devices which enables better understanding and prediction of their characteristics and overcoming the contact resistance issue in a promising 2D semiconductor, WSe2, which enables the advancement of these devices towards near-deal characteristics. To predict and analyze the electrical characteristics of 2D vertical heterostructures, we need to develop solid understanding of the potential landscape, charge distribution, and energy band diagrams in these devices. Conventional modeling approaches and simulation tools that have been used so far to simulate the transport characteristics obscure our intuition as the devices get more arbitrary and complex. Here, we developed a circuit equivalent model to simulate the vertical electrostatics in these novel and arbitrary heterostructures in a simple and intuitive manner. In our model, all the parameters of the energy band diagram are represented by equivalent circuit elements involving capacitors and voltage sources. We also provide an elegant approach to solve these circuits by using Gauss law in electrostatics and charge-neutrality conditions in quasi-equilibrium. With a computationally efficient algorithm developed to solve these structures, we further built an opensource tool 2dmatstack on nanohub.org that enables researchers to predict and analyze the characteristics of novel heterostructures to maximize research output. In the next section, we focus on a major bottleneck in realizing these vertical devices experimentally. Fermi-level pinning and process-induced surface damage cause large Schottky barriers between metal contacts and these ultrathin 2D semiconducting layers resulting in large contact resistance and poor, non-ideal device performance. The solution to this problem is much more developed in the most widely studied n-type candidate, MoS2, compared to the common the p-type candidate, WSe2. In this work, we develop a UV-ozone-based oxidation technique that transforms the top layer of WSe2 into a nonstoichiometric oxide, TOS, that degenerately dopes the layers underneath p-type. This high hole-doping decreases the Schottky barrier width at the contacts and has resulted in the lowest p-type contact resistance to ultrathin WSe2 reported thus far. We show that this doping is stable in the ambient, remains active at low temperatures, repeatable, robust, and area selective for contact-doping without altering the channel properties. The high-performance ohmic contacts we demonstrate not only sets us in the path to realize near-ideal channel-dominated devices but also is pivotal to understand these devices better by eliminating the effect of contacts from the gate-controlled channel characteristics.

Ultramicroelectrodes (UMEs) are generally defined as electrodes with sizes ≤25 µm. UMEs can be prepared by several methods including by sealing a conductive filament like thin metal wire or a single carbon fiber in a glass capillary. The small size of UMEs makes them useful as probes for measuring electroactive species in confined spaces (for example, inside living cells, etc.), and also enables very effective mass transport, resulting in rapid achievement of steady-state response and facilitating measurement of fast electrochemical reactions. Application of UMEs often requires modification of the electrode surface to improve the selectivity and the sensitivity towards the target analyte. Surface modification methods are time-consuming and may require expensive equipment. Previous research in our group demonstrated that a simple soft nitriding method could be employed to introduce surface nitrogen on carbon fiber (CF). The technique improved electrochemical response of CF-UMEs towards hydrogen peroxide (a reactive oxygen species that has been related to various malignancies and disorders) and, in separate experiments, also enabled deposition of electroactive metal nanoparticles on the UME surface. Since the presence of phosphorus heteroatoms on carbon electrodes has been shown to impart similar benefits, here we investigate a simple phosphorus doping strategy to make P-doped CF-UMEs. We compare their properties towards the electrocatalytic reduction of H2O2 to both N-doped CF-UMEs and unmodified CF-UMEs.

Doping har varit en del av idrott och en del av den tävlande människans liv lika länge som dessa har existerat, och även innan. Från början användes det som ett sätt att ge förbättrade fysiska förmågor i olika stridssammanhang, och ibland använde man det i rituella syften. Sedan idrottens födelse såsom vi känner den idag, ända sedan de antika grekerna, har olika metoder som liknar det vi idag kallar doping använts. Under de antika Olympiska spelen gjorde folk öppet vad som helst som de trodde kunde öka deras chanser att vinna. Det fanns inga regler mot det, och det betraktades inte på något sätt som fusk eller på något annat sätt som ett brott mot reglerna. Dessa uppfattningar om doping förblev mer eller mindre oförändrade fram till mitten av 1900-talet. Från detta kan vi härleda en logik som reglerar förekomsten av doping och dess metoder. Under 1900-talet utvecklades dopingdiskursen till följd av utvecklingar i samhället och en professionalisering av idrottsvärlden vilket ledde till att logiken sakteligen förändrades. Syfte med denna studie är att problematisera fenomenet doping inom idrott, att undersöka de villkor som möjliggjort dess uppkomst, krafterna som reglerar och ordnar det och genom vilka det normaliseras. Detta åstadkoms genom en diskursiv analys av doping som huvudsakligen vilar på Foucaults tankar om genealogi och arkeologi samt diskursiva formationsregler. Det empiriska materialet utgörs till största del av olika historiska översikter och redogörelser av dopingens och idrottens historia.Resultatet från diskursanalysen visar en tydlig utveckling som diskursen om doping haft under åren. Särskilda nyckelmoment i dopingens historia såsom dödsfall och diskontinuiteter i diskursen som haft speciellt stor bärighet på den riktning som utvecklingen av människors mentaliteter angående ämnet har tagit lyfts fram och diskuteras. Det är uppenbart att dopingens diskurs och sättet på vilket vi betraktar fenomenet idag endast är ett resultat av det komplexa system av samverkande idéer och diskurser som producerat den verklighet till vilken vi alla nu tillhör och lever efter. Det tycks vara någonting som, under andra omständigheter, mycket väl hade kunnat uppfattas annorlunda än vad det gör idag. / Doping has been a part of sports and the life of the competing man for as long as they have existed, and even before that. It began as a means to improve physical prowess in combat-oriented situations and sometimes it was used for ritual purposes. Since the dawn of sports as we know them, dating back to the ancient Greeks, different methods akin to what we today would describe as doping were used. In the Olympic games people would openly do whatever they could think of to increase their chances of winning. There were no regulations against it, and it was not considered in any way to be cheating or in any other way a violation of the rules. These ideas remained more or less unchanged until the middle of the twentieth century.From this we can derive a logic that governs the use of doping supplements and its methods. During the twentieth century the discourse on doping underwent substantial developments following the development of society and the professionalization of sports, and thus the logic changed.The aim of this study is to problematize the phenomena of doping in sports, to examine its conditions of emergence, the forces that regulate it and through which it becomes normalized. This is accomplished through the use of a discourse analysis inspired primarily by Foucault and his concepts and thoughts surrounding genealogy, archaeology and the discursive formation of discourses. The empirical data constitutes various historical overviews and accounts of the history of doping and that of sports. The result of the discourse analysis shows a clear path across which the discourse of doping has evolved over the years. Certain key moments in the history of doping such as fatalities and discontinuities in the discourse that contributed to the development of the minds of people surrounding the subject are highlighted and discussed. It is clear that the discourse on doping and the way we view the phenomena today are merely the result of a complex interaction of ideas and discourses that have produced the reality to which we all now subscribe. It appears to be something that, given different circumstances, could very well have been perceived quite differently today.

No description available.

Immobilization of Electrocatalytically Active Gold Nanoparticles on Nitrogen-Doped Carbon Fiber Electrodes ABSTRACT Recently, immobilization of single metal nanoparticles on nanometer-sized electrodes has been demonstrated as a means to electrochemically probe the relationship between nanoparticle structure and function. Such studies of individual, isolated nanoparticles enable investigation of electrochemical behavior and electrocatalytic properties in the absence of complicating factors like interparticle distance and nanoparticle loading that are typically associated with collections of particles distributed on electrode supports. However, interpretation of electrochemical data obtained from single nanoparticle immobilization experiments can also be difficult since the underlying nanoelectrode platform can sometimes contribute to the measured current or the immobilization strategy may have adverse effects on electron transfer. Here we report immobilization of gold nanoparticles on relatively catalytically inert carbon fiber ultramicro- and nanoelectrodes through a modification method based on recently reported soft nitriding process found to be effective in attaching ligand-free ultrasmall noble metal catalysts to activated carbons. X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy results reveal that the nitriding of carbon fibers provides 3.5 times increase in surface nitrogen content, introducing mostly pyridinic and amine nitrogen groups. The nitrogen-containing surface sites proved to be beneficial to the deposition of gold nanoparticles (AuNPs), as sodium borohydride reduction of tetrachloroaurate resulted in attachment of AuNPs on nitrided carbon fiber ultramicroelectrodes (N-CF-UMEs) in as little as 10 seconds while immobilization of AuNPs on unmodified CF-UMEs required at least 12 hours. A recently reported electrochemical method was employed to characterize immobilized AuNPs, and AuNP size was found to be directly related to deposition time. AuNPs immobilized on N-CF-UMEs also exhibited electrocatalytic activity towards methanol oxidation. Reduction of electrode size will enable this strategy to be employed to investigate electrochemical behavior of individual gold nanoparticles, while the ligand-free nature of the immobilized particles also provides the opportunity to investigate effects of surface capping agents on electrocatalytic properties.