La présente étude examine la période qui s’étend entre l’effondrement du palais de Knossos (fin du XIVe s.) et l’avènement de la cité grecque (milieu du VIIe s.), dans la région qui borde la baie du Mirambello. Elle vise à caractériser le processus de formation de la polis dans cette partie de la Crète orientale. A partir des résultats des fouilles et des prospections conduites dans la région et dans une perspective à la fois archéologique et géographique, des schémas d’implantation de l’occupation sont dégagés. Les principales transformations de la culture matérielle (urbanisme, architecture, mobilier) sont également mises en évidence pour les différentes phases chronologiques observées et sont étudiées de manière thématique d’après les contextes religieux, funéraire, résidentiel et politique. Une synthèse reprend les résultats obtenus en les combinant et souligne les traditions et les innovations qui sous-tendent l’apparition de la cité dans le Mirambello. Cette recherche prend la forme de trois volumes : le premier volume consiste en une exploration archéologique et géographique de la région ; les informations rassemblées sont analysées dans le second volume ; le troisième volume regroupe les cartes régionales produites pour illustrer cette étude. / This study considers the period between the collapse of the Palace of Knossos (end of 14th c. B.C.) and the birth of the Greek city-state (mid 7th c. B.C.) in the region of the Mirabello Bay, in eastern Crete. It aims to define the formation process of the polis in this part of the island. Evaluating results of archaeological surveys and excavations conducted in the region, the study analyzes and interprets patterns of occupation and settlement structure from archaeological and geographical perspectives. Significant changes in material patterns and transformations of material culture are characterized for each chronological phase, following thematic threads of religious, funerary, residential, and political contexts. The results are combined in a new synthesis which emphasizes the main traditions and innovations from which the polis arose in the Mirabello region. The research is presented in three volumes : Volume I gives the detailed results of an archaeological and geographical exploration of the region ; these data are further analysed in Volume II ; maps produced for the study are gathered in Volume III.

Cette thèse propose de réévaluer nos connaissances sur le mobilier de parure daté du Premier âge du Fer (800-400 a.C.) dans une zone comprise entre le sud-ouest de la France et le nord-ouest de l'Espagne. La large emprise géographique de ce travail, à cheval sur deux pays aux traditions de recherche distinctes, est déterminée par des résultats antérieurs qui avaient pu mettre en exergue plusieurs rapprochements typologiques entre ces deux régions sans en dessiner précisément les contours. L'objectif est donc de pallier ce manque et de porter une analyse à la fois chronologique, spatiale, culturelle et sociale du mobilier d'apparat. Pour ce faire, cette thèse s'appuie sur un corpus de parures issues de fouilles anciennes et récentes rassemblées dans une base de données relationnelles. La première étape d'analyse est réservée à la mise en place de typologies. Les relations taphonomiques des objets et les comparaisons avec les vestiges similaires venant de régions extérieures à notre cadre d'étude permettent d'actualiser les chronologies connues jusqu'alors pour les parures. Lors d'une seconde étape, la synthèse typo-chronologique du corpus découvert en contexte funéraire mène à la reconnaissance d'un phasage chronologique général. Ce phasage, qui partitionne en trois horizons l'intervalle retenu, est marqué d'une part par sa proximité avec celui reconnu dans le sud-est de la France, et d'autre part par un léger décalage entre les phénomènes observés sur les sites établis au nord et au sud des Pyrénées. Fondée sur cette trame chronologique, l'analyse spatiale du corpus permet de rendre compte de l'emprise territoriale de faciès mobiliers locaux et de leurs évolutions dans le temps. L'identification d'un faciès "pyrénéen" et son expansion à la fin du Premier âge du Fer est l'un des apports majeurs de cette étude. Enfin, lors d'une troisième et dernière étape, cette thèse propose une analyse sur les porteurs de parures. L'utilisation d'analyses factorielles de correspondances (AFC) autorisent la reconnaissance de divers costumes funéraires pour lesquels les parures jouent un rôle prépondérant dans la représentation d'un système social organisé et complexe. / This thesis proposes to re-evaluate our knowledge on ornamental furniture dated to the Early Iron Age (800-400 BC) in an area between southwest France and northwest Spain. The wide geographical scope of this work, taking place between two countries with distinct research traditions, is determined by previous results that had been able to highlight several typological similarities between these two regions without precisely drawing their outlines. The objective is to fill this gap and to provide an analysis that is chronological, spatial, cultural and social of the ceremonial furniture. To do this, this thesis is based on a corpus of ornaments from ancient and recent excavations gathered in a relational database. The first stage of analysis is reserved for the implementation of typologies. The taphonomic relationships of these objects and comparisons with similar remains from regions outside our study allow us to update the chronologies known until then. During a second stage, the typo-chronological synthesis of the corpus discovered in the funeral context leads to the recognition of a general chronological phasing. This phasing, which divides the selected interval into three horizons, is marked on the one hand by its proximity to what is knows in south-eastern France, and on the other hand by a slight discrepancy between the phenomena observed on the sites established to the north and south of the Pyrenees. Based on this chronological framework, the spatial analysis of the corpus makes it possible to account for the territorial hold of local movable facies and their evolution over time. The identification of a "Pyrenean" facies and its expansion at the end of the Early Iron Age is one of the major contribution of this study. Finally, during a third and last stage, this thesis proposes an analysis on the wearers of ornamentals. The use of correspondence factor analysis (CFA) allows the recognition of various funeral costumes for which the ornamentals plays a predominant role in the representation of an organized and complex social system.

<p>Under åren 1977–89 bedrev arkeologiska institutionen vid Umeå universitet en forskningsundersökning av en boplats från äldre järnålder på Genesmon i Själevad socken, norra Ångermanland. Under åren 1991–99 rekonstruerades delar av gården i Gene fornby, ett hundratal meter därifrån. Denna avhandling behandlar uppbyggnad och inredning av ett av gårdens långhus, hus II, samt den treskeppiga byggnadstypens konstruktion och funktion i en större kontext. Syftet med avhandlingen är att beskriva växelverkan mellan teori och praktik i rekonstruktion, att beskriva rekonstruktionsarbete som en föränderlig förklarings- och förståelseprocess samt att undersöka om rekonstruktion kan bidra till ökad förståelse av arkeologiska huslämningar. Efter nära 5000 års dominans i södra och mellersta Skandinavien upphör långhusen att vara det allmänna byggnadsskicket i slutet av yngre järnålder. Varför detta sker blev en viktig fråga för förståelsen av byggnadstypen.</p><p>En hermeneutisk modell används för att beskriva hur tolkningarna under rekonstruktionsarbetet kom att inverka på varandra i en serie av samverkande eller motverkande förklaringar till den arkeologiska lämningen. Utifrån arkeologiska och skriftliga källor beskrivs därefter indelning och inredning av långhuset i sju rumsfunktioner som kan benämnas bur, önd, skåle, fjös, stall, lada och eldhus. Eldens roll, hedersplatsens placering och byggnadstypens förändring i Island blev viktiga delar för att förstå byggnadens ideologiska betydelse. Genom flera experiment med uppvärmning har lösningar sökts på problem med en rökig bostadsmiljö. Erfarenheterna leder slutligen fram till ett förslag på lösning som också illustrerar hur påtagligt förebilden kom att styra tolkningsarbetet.</p><p>Rekonstruktionsarbetet ledde till resultat av olika karaktär: dels erfarenheter om konstruktion, funktion samt material - och tidsåtgång för uppförande av den specifika huslämningen hus II och dels nya generella frågor och ny kunskap som ökar förståelsen kring den treskeppiga byggnadstypen. Långsträckt form, takbärande stolpar, mitthärd och relation till kult och ideologi föreslås som karaktäristiska element för byggnadstypen över tid och rum och byggnadens relation till ideologi föreslås som en av förklaringarna till varför långhusen försvinner i samband med kristnandet. När övergången till ett nytt byggnadsskick med ramverkshus sker under vikingatidens slutskede diskuteras den politiska och kyrkliga makten som styrande till dessa genomgripande förändringar.</p> / <p>During the years of 1977-89 the Department of Archaeology at Umeå University conducted a scientific investigation of an Early Iron Age settlement at Genesmon in the parish of Själevad, northern Ångermanland. Subsequently, during the years 1991-99 parts of the farm were reconstructed at Gene Fornby, a couple of hundred meters away from the site. This thesis deals with the construction and furnishing of one of the farm’s longhouses (House II), and the wider context of the construction and function of the “three-aisled” building type. The purpose of this thesis is to describe the interaction between theory and practice in reconstruction, to describe the reconstruction process as a constantly changing process of explanation and understanding, and to investigate as to whether reconstructions can contribute to an increased understanding of archaeological house remains. At the end of the Late Iron Age, after nearly 5000 years of dominance in Southern and Central Scandinavia, the longhouse ceases to be the dominant form of construction. Understanding why this happened became an important problem in this work. </p><p>During the reconstruction work, different interpretations influenced one another in a series of positive and negative feedbacks into the explanations of the archaeological remains. A hermeneutic model is used to describe this phenomenon. From archaeological and written sources, division and furnishing of the long-houses can be described in terms of seven room functions. These can be classified as storage bur, porch önd, living room skåle, byre fjös, stable stall, barn lada and rough kitchen eldhus. In order to understand the ideological meaning of the buildings the role of the fire, the placement of the seat of honour and the change in the type of building in Iceland became important parts of this study. Numerous heating experiments have been undertaken in order to try to solve the problem of excessive smoke within the building. The experiments finally led to a possible solution that also serves to illustrate just how the model itself came to influence the process of interpretation.</p><p>The reconstruction work led to results of different character: partly data on construction, function and materials – and the time frame for the construction of House II from its archaeological remains; and partly knowledge and new theories which increase our understanding of the three-aisled building form. The elongated form, roof supporting poles, central hearth and a close association with ritual and ideology are suggested as characteristic elements for this type of construction, throughout its chronological and spatial extent. The relationship between the building and Norse ideologies is suggested as one of the explanations for the longhouse’s dissappearance with the introduction of Christianity. At the end of the Viking Age, there is a transition into a new framework based method of construction, and the political and ecclesiastical authorities are discussed as having governed these widespread changes.</p>

Under åren 1977–89 bedrev arkeologiska institutionen vid Umeå universitet en forskningsundersökning av en boplats från äldre järnålder på Genesmon i Själevad socken, norra Ångermanland. Under åren 1991–99 rekonstruerades delar av gården i Gene fornby, ett hundratal meter därifrån. Denna avhandling behandlar uppbyggnad och inredning av ett av gårdens långhus, hus II, samt den treskeppiga byggnadstypens konstruktion och funktion i en större kontext. Syftet med avhandlingen är att beskriva växelverkan mellan teori och praktik i rekonstruktion, att beskriva rekonstruktionsarbete som en föränderlig förklarings- och förståelseprocess samt att undersöka om rekonstruktion kan bidra till ökad förståelse av arkeologiska huslämningar. Efter nära 5000 års dominans i södra och mellersta Skandinavien upphör långhusen att vara det allmänna byggnadsskicket i slutet av yngre järnålder. Varför detta sker blev en viktig fråga för förståelsen av byggnadstypen. En hermeneutisk modell används för att beskriva hur tolkningarna under rekonstruktionsarbetet kom att inverka på varandra i en serie av samverkande eller motverkande förklaringar till den arkeologiska lämningen. Utifrån arkeologiska och skriftliga källor beskrivs därefter indelning och inredning av långhuset i sju rumsfunktioner som kan benämnas bur, önd, skåle, fjös, stall, lada och eldhus. Eldens roll, hedersplatsens placering och byggnadstypens förändring i Island blev viktiga delar för att förstå byggnadens ideologiska betydelse. Genom flera experiment med uppvärmning har lösningar sökts på problem med en rökig bostadsmiljö. Erfarenheterna leder slutligen fram till ett förslag på lösning som också illustrerar hur påtagligt förebilden kom att styra tolkningsarbetet. Rekonstruktionsarbetet ledde till resultat av olika karaktär: dels erfarenheter om konstruktion, funktion samt material - och tidsåtgång för uppförande av den specifika huslämningen hus II och dels nya generella frågor och ny kunskap som ökar förståelsen kring den treskeppiga byggnadstypen. Långsträckt form, takbärande stolpar, mitthärd och relation till kult och ideologi föreslås som karaktäristiska element för byggnadstypen över tid och rum och byggnadens relation till ideologi föreslås som en av förklaringarna till varför långhusen försvinner i samband med kristnandet. När övergången till ett nytt byggnadsskick med ramverkshus sker under vikingatidens slutskede diskuteras den politiska och kyrkliga makten som styrande till dessa genomgripande förändringar. / During the years of 1977-89 the Department of Archaeology at Umeå University conducted a scientific investigation of an Early Iron Age settlement at Genesmon in the parish of Själevad, northern Ångermanland. Subsequently, during the years 1991-99 parts of the farm were reconstructed at Gene Fornby, a couple of hundred meters away from the site. This thesis deals with the construction and furnishing of one of the farm’s longhouses (House II), and the wider context of the construction and function of the “three-aisled” building type. The purpose of this thesis is to describe the interaction between theory and practice in reconstruction, to describe the reconstruction process as a constantly changing process of explanation and understanding, and to investigate as to whether reconstructions can contribute to an increased understanding of archaeological house remains. At the end of the Late Iron Age, after nearly 5000 years of dominance in Southern and Central Scandinavia, the longhouse ceases to be the dominant form of construction. Understanding why this happened became an important problem in this work. During the reconstruction work, different interpretations influenced one another in a series of positive and negative feedbacks into the explanations of the archaeological remains. A hermeneutic model is used to describe this phenomenon. From archaeological and written sources, division and furnishing of the long-houses can be described in terms of seven room functions. These can be classified as storage bur, porch önd, living room skåle, byre fjös, stable stall, barn lada and rough kitchen eldhus. In order to understand the ideological meaning of the buildings the role of the fire, the placement of the seat of honour and the change in the type of building in Iceland became important parts of this study. Numerous heating experiments have been undertaken in order to try to solve the problem of excessive smoke within the building. The experiments finally led to a possible solution that also serves to illustrate just how the model itself came to influence the process of interpretation. The reconstruction work led to results of different character: partly data on construction, function and materials – and the time frame for the construction of House II from its archaeological remains; and partly knowledge and new theories which increase our understanding of the three-aisled building form. The elongated form, roof supporting poles, central hearth and a close association with ritual and ideology are suggested as characteristic elements for this type of construction, throughout its chronological and spatial extent. The relationship between the building and Norse ideologies is suggested as one of the explanations for the longhouse’s dissappearance with the introduction of Christianity. At the end of the Viking Age, there is a transition into a new framework based method of construction, and the political and ecclesiastical authorities are discussed as having governed these widespread changes.

L’objectif de cette thèse est double : d’une part, il s’agit de faire la synthèse des connaissances disponibles à ce jour sur la période du premier âge du Fer (800/425 a.C. environ) dans la zone géographique étudiée ; d’autre part, il est question d’analyser les modalités et les dynamiques d’occupation du sol au cours de cette période et dans cet espace. La démarche comporte plusieurs étapes de travail. La première consiste à inventorier les données disponibles, sous la forme d’une base de données relationnelle. Un référentiel chronologique propre, reposant sur l’analyse typologique fine du corpus céramique et d’un certain nombre d’autres catégories d’objets (armement, parure, outillage notamment), est ensuite établi. L’étude typo-chronologique du mobilier issu des sites funéraires et des sites d’habitat a permis l’élaboration d’un cadre chronologique régional indépendant des grands systèmes continentaux. L’analyse spatiale, dernière étape du travail, s’appuie sur la trame chronologique ainsi dégagée et a pour objectifs, d’une part, l’identification et l’étude de faciès mobiliers locaux et de leur évolution dans le temps, et d’autre part, la recherche et l’étude d’éventuels schémas récurrents d’organisation spatiale. Les faciès mobiliers sont étudiés au moyen d’analyses de données multivariées prenant comme données de départ la typologie des objets et leur localisation dans l’espace. Le thème de l’organisation spatiale est quant à lui abordé par diverses méthodes d’analyse mises en œuvre via un Système d’Information Géographique (SIG), en déclinant des approches complémentaires (hiérarchisation des sites, emprise visuelle des sites de hauteur, relations entre sites funéraires et sites d’habitat…). / The objective of this PhD research is twofold. First, it aims to synthesize the available knowledge on the Early Iron Age period on the studied area. Secondly, it deals with the analysis of modes and dynamics of settlement during this period and in this geographical area. The research process is made of several steps. The first one consists in the development of relational database made from the inventory of available data. Then, a chronological framework is established form a precise typological analysis of the pottery and some others categories of artefacts (weapons, jewelry, tools…). The typo-chronological study of the material found on burial sites and settlements allows to define a specific regional chronological framework which is independent from the main continental chronological systems. Lastly, the spatial analysis based on this chronological framework aims the identification and study of the sub-regional facies and their evolution throughout time and secondly, the search for reccurent spatial organization patterns. The archaeological facies are studied with multivariate data analysis and, as starting dataset, the typology of the artefacts and their localization in space. The spatial organization is studied with diverse analysis methods within a GIS (Geographic Information System), using complementary approaches (settlement hierarchy, viewshed of the hillforts, relations between burial and domestic sites…).

Très tôt dans l'histoire, l'homme se définit moins comme un individu que comme un membre appartenant à un groupe structuré et complexe, ce qui le différencie des autres groupes. La construction sociale du groupe repose ainsi sur deux fondements : le fait de se reconnaître comme groupe et celui d'être différents des autres groupes. L'idéologie funéraire participe entièrement à ce phénomène de construction identitaire. L'espace de la mort apparaît comme un espace chrono-culturel, social et identitaire où les communautés affirment, perpétuent ou réécrivent leurs anciennes et nouvelles normes collectives. Ces attitudes sont le reflet d'une parole sur la mort et témoignent de l'existence de stratégies identitaires de la part de communautés et de groupes qui ont fait la démarche consciente ou non de se prévaloir de ces discours et de ces images dans la mort. Mes travaux visent à identifier les phénomènes de continuité et de rupture et les multiples combinaisons adoptées par les communautés de l'île de Crète entre le MR III C et la période archaïque, en étudiant les marqueurs d'une attitude plus ou moins active des communautés dans la mort et de stratégies identitaires. Par ailleurs, je cherche à savoir si ces discours sur la mort n'auraient pas eu un effet sur les comportements identitaires de communautés en entraînant une attitude plus active des communautés dans leurs pratiques funéraires. Le phénomène identitaire étant un phénomène non figé dans le temps et dans l'espace, mes travaux tentent également de démontrer que plus l'identité collective est forte et stable, plus les différents phénomènes identitaires sont intrinsèquement liés et dénotent une société structurée. / Very early on in history, man regarded himself less as an individual than as a member of a structured and complex group with its own common past and shared social values that differentiated it from other groups. The social construction of the group was thus founded on two principles : the identification with a group and the differentiation from other groups The funerary ideology wholly embraces this phenomenon of ethnic crystallisation. The space of death manifests as a chrono-cultural, social, and identity space where communities affirm, perpetuate, or rewrite their old and new collective norms. These attitudes reflect a discourse on death and attest to the existence of identity strategies used by communities and groups who, whether consciously or not, referred to these discourses and images in death. This research aims to identify the phenomena of continuity and rupture, and the multiple combinations adopted by the communities of the Island of Crete between to LM III C to Archaic period, by studying the markers of the communities' more or less active approach to death and their identity strategies. Furthermore, I seek to confirm whether these discourses on death had an effect on the identity behaviours of the communities and led to a more active approach among the communities in their funeral practices. As the identity phenomenon varied in time and space, my research also attempts to demonstrate that the more powerful and stable the collective identity was, the more the different identity phenomena were intrinsically linked together, thus denoting a structured society.

The mysterious Sea Peoples are groups thought to have entered the Orient towards the end of the Late Bronze Age time period. Their impact on the region was seemingly influential and one of the contributing factors leading to the decline of the societal status quo in the region leading up to 1200 BCE. Their origins, cultural identity and long term impact on the area are all factors which have been difficult and complex to research. The challenges with regard to these peoples and any research concentrated upon them include a definitive lack of physical evidence of their material culture, specifically in the northern regions thought to have been inhabited by them. Further south the situation differs slightly as the Philistines (thought to be a Sea Peoples group) did settle into a sophisticated society with material remains to prove it. In the north however, Sea Peoples are known to have settled but their impact is less clear but not necessarily non-existent in all regards. The Phoenicians as an Iron Age civilisation date back to the transitional period of 1200 BCE (Late Bronze Age to Early Iron Age) and have often been regarded as simply the cultural descendants of the Late Bronze Age Canaanites. This is true in many ways but in certain instances the Phoenicians achieved feats and undertook cultural practices that may diverge from this idea of complete continuity. In terms of maritime activity, the Phoenicians were able to accomplish feats never before seen in the region. The time period in which these maritime activities started to take place on such an expansive level corresponds with the settlement of northern Sea Peoples in Phoenicia and just outside its southern borders. Although the physical evidence regarding these Sea Peoples is by no means available in abundance, perhaps one can find their impact in the cultural makeup and actions of the Phoenicians. It may be plausible that groups of people that had such a significant influence on an area through their migrations, as the Sea Peoples did, could have had more long term influences on the occupants of the area than has been credited to them before. One possible manifestation of this influence may be the unique maritime character of the Phoenicians which can be compared with the Sea Peoples, who have not been given their name coincidentally. Their affinity to the sea is well known through textual and pictographic records and can in some instances be favourably paralleled with the Phoenicians. Ship design alterations going into the Phoenician age is possibly, at least in part, due to Sea Peoples influence. Furthermore the actual undertaking of Phoenician expansion across the sea and following early forms of maritime expansion which was, to a degree, unknown in the area before seems to have started in a time period contemporaneous with Sea Peoples settling in Canaan. Apart from the settlement in itself, these peoples did so after migrating en masse across the Mediterranean and this must surely be worthy of additional attention. The Sea Peoples’ constant affiliation with all things ship and sea orientated must add some impetus 9 to this argument. Any other similarities between the Sea Peoples and Phoenicians can also be used as an indicator of cultural mergence. Cultural and societal divergences uncovered between the Late Bronze Age and Early Iron Age inhabitants also may illuminate ideas of decisive outside influences after 1200 BCE. The primary thread of this research is dedicated to dealing with the possibilities mentioned and perhaps presenting alternative theories to those currently accepted. / Dissertation (MA)--University of Pretoria, 2014. / gm2014 / Ancient Languages / unrestricted

L’objectif de cette thèse est de mettre en évidence la nature et l’intensité des interactions culturelles au premier âge du Fer en Provence occidentale entre les communautés indigènes et leurs interlocuteurs méditerranéens. Passé le chapitre introductif, la première partie comporte nos trois dossiers documentaires : l’enclos Saint-Césaire (Arles), le Castelet (Fontvieille) et le sondage MN11 de Saint-Blaise (Saint-Mitre-les-Remparts). Chaque gisement est replacé dans son contexte historiographique et environnemental avant que ne soit réalisée l’étude typo-chronologique du mobilier. Sont ainsi associés le phasage et le faciès céramique dans le but de procéder à nos premières conclusions. La seconde partie élargit le cadre analytique avec des problématiques transversales nous permettant d’envisager l’espace considéré selon différents angles de vue basés sur les dynamiques d’échanges et mettant en évidence les éventuels marqueurs de phénomènes de contact entre ces différentes cultures. La mise en perspective de l’ensemble de ces données permet de réintroduire la notion même d’ « homme » et sa relation à l’Autre lors du premier âge du Fer provençal. / The objective of this thesis is to highlight the nature and intensity of cultural interactions during the first Iron age in Western Provence, between indigenous communities and their Mediterranean interlocutors. Past the introductory chapter, the first part comprises our three documentary records: the enclos Saint-Césaire (Arles), le Castelet (Fontvieille) and the sondage MN11 of Saint-Blaise (Saint-Mitre-les-Remparts). Each deposit is placed in its environmental and historiographical context before the typo-chronological study of the ceramics. Thus the phasing and ceramic facies are associated in the purpose to proceed to our first conclusions. The second part extends the analytical framework with the cross-cutting issues allowing us to consider the space considered according to different points of view based on trade dynamics and highlighting any markers of contact phenomena between these different cultures.The consideration of the data allows us to reintroduce the notion of 'man' and its relationship to the Other during the first age of the Provençal early Iron age.

During the Viking Age, the burials on Gotland consisted of both cremations and inhumations. However, inhumation became increasingly common at the end of that period. Furthermore, several children have been identified around the island, but almost all of them are in inhumation graves. Only a few analyses of cremations from the Viking Age have been conducted. At the moment, there are only two burial grounds, dating to the Viking Age on Gotland, where the remains of cremated children have been noted. This study aims to try to locate children's graves, or possible children's graves, by studying cremations from the burial ground in Stora Ihre, Hellvi parish. Hopefully, this will contribute to future studies of cremations from Gotland in the early Iron Age and bring more knowledge on how children were treated. A total of 60 cremations have been analyzed, where only two graves contain the remains of non-adult individuals, but only one of these dates to the Viking age. At Stora Ihre, children of several ages have been buried in inhumation graves, like many other places in the rest of Gotland. In several cases, they have been buried together or secondarily next to an older individual, both in or around an inhumation or cremation grave, but in some cases, children have been given their own grave. This may indicate that a shift in burial traditions of children took place from the Vendel period to the Viking age, but it may also reflect social differences between the ages.

KwaGandaganda is an Early Iron Age (EIA) site in the .Mngeni valley (KwaZulu-Nata~ South Africa). Three cultural phases, Msuluzi, Ndondondwane and Ntshekane, dating between AD 620- AD 1030 were identified. The objective was to establish the extent of animal exploitation during the EIA in KwaZulu-Natal by means of faunal analysis, using internationally accepted methods. The collection included 41 006 fragments of which 22.9% were identifiable. A large number of species (68) were identified, including Rattus rattus. The collection yielded the largest quantity of ivory chips ever found on an EIA site in southern Africa, as well as an extensive variety of pathological specimens, mostly from Bos taurus. Several possible divining bones were present in the sample. Herd management, hunting strategies, gathering activities, fishing and trading of animal goods during the EIA were discussed, while the consequences of the unique excavation methods (i.e. the use of bulldozers) were also commented upon. / Anthropology and Archaeology / M.A. (Anthropology)