In general, electric propulsion offers very high efficiency but relatively low thrust. To remedy this, several ion engines can be assembled in a clustered configuration and operated in parallel. This requires the careful design of a frame to accommodate the individual propulsion systems. This frame must be modular to be used in different cluster sizes, and verify thermal and mechanical requirements to ensure the nominal operation of the thrusters. The present report aims to show the design process of such a frame, from preliminary modelling to the experimental study of a prototype. This document features an overview of the iterative design process driven by thermal simulations rendered on COMSOL Multiphysics. This process led to the conception of a 2-thruster and 4-thruster cluster frame. A lumped-parameter model of the electric propulsion system was also created to model its complex thermal behaviour. In addition, the 2-thruster frame was studied mechanically with analytical calculations and simulations of simple load cases on SolidWorks. Lastly, a prototype based on the 2-thruster frame model was assembled. The prototype was used to conduct temperature measurements while hosting two operating thrusters inside a vacuum chamber. The temperature distribution in the cluster was measured, and compared to simulation results. Thermal simulations of the 2-thruster and 4-thruster frame showed promising results, while mechanical simulations of the 2-thruster version met all requirements. Moreover, experimental results largely agreed with thermal simulations of the prototype. Finally, the lumped-element model proved instrumental in calibrating the models, with its high flexibility and quick computation time. / Generellt erbjuder elektrisk framdrivning hög verkningsgrad men relativt låg dragkraft. För att avhjälpa detta kan flera jonmotorer sättas samman i en klusterkonfiguration och drivs parallellt. Detta kräver en noggrann utformning av en ram för att rymma de enskilda framdrivningssystemen. Denna ram måste vara modulär för att kunna användas i olika klusterstorlekar och verifiera termiska och mekaniska krav för att säkerställa den nominella driften av motorerna. Föreliggande rapport syftar till att visa designprocessen för en sådan ram, från preliminär modellering till experimentell studie av en prototyp. Detta dokument innehåller en översikt över den iterativa designprocessen, driven av termiska simuleringar gjorda med COMSOL Multiphysics, som ledde till uppfattningen av en 2 motorer och 4 motorer ram. En klumpelementmodell av jonmotorn skapades också för att modellera dess komplexa termiska beteende. Dessutom var den 2 motorer ram studeras mekaniskt med analytiska beräkningar och simuleringar av enkla laddafall med SolidWorks. Slutligen monterades en prototyp baserad på den 2 motorer rammodellen. Prototypen användes för att göra temperaturmätningar medan den är värd för 2 jonmotorer i en vakuumkammare. Temperaturfördelningen i klustret mättes och jämfördes med simuleringsresultat. Termiska simuleringar av den 2 motorer och 4 motorer ramen visade lovande resultat, medan mekaniska simuleringar av den 2 motorer versionen klarade alla krav. Dessutom överensstämde experimentella resultat till stor del med termiska simuleringar av prototypen. Slutligen var klumpelementmodellen mycket användbar för att kalibrera de andra modellerna med sin höga flexibilitet och snabba beräkningstid.

<p dir="ltr"> With NASA's Artemis program and international collaborations focused on building a sustainable infrastructure for human exploration of the Moon, there is a growing demand for lunar exploration and complex spaceflight operations in cislunar space. However, designing efficient transfer trajectories between the Earth and the Moon remains complex and challenging. This investigation focuses on developing a dynamically informed framework for constructing low-energy transfers in the Earth-Moon-Sun Bicircular Restricted Four-body Problem (BCR4BP). Techniques within dynamical systems theory and numerical methods are exploited to construct transfers to various cislunar orbits. The analysis aims to contribute to a deeper understanding of the dynamical structures governing spacecraft motion. It addresses the characteristics of dynamical structures that facilitate the construction of propellant-efficient pathways between the Earth and the Moon, exploring periodic structures and energy properties from the Circular Restricted Three-body Problem (CR3BP) and BCR4BP. The investigation also focuses on constructing families of low-energy transfers by incorporating electric propulsion, i.e., low thrust, in an effort to reduce the time of flight and offer alternative transfer geometries. Additionally, the investigation introduces a process to transition solutions to the higher fidelity ephemeris force model to accurately model spacecraft motion through the Earth-Moon-Sun system. This research provides insights into constructing families of ballistic lunar transfers (BLTs) and cislunar low-energy flight paths (CLEFs), offering a foundation for future mission design and exploration of the Earth-Moon system.</p>

Στόχος της παρούσας διπλωματικής εργασίας είναι ο σχεδιασμός και η κατασκευή του ηλεκτρικού κινητηρίου συστήματος ενός ηλεκτροκίνητου σκάφους. Πραγματοποιήθηκαν μία σειρά από τεχνικές επεμβάσεις ώστε να μετατραπεί ένα απλό σκάφος σε ηλεκτροκίνητο. Στην εποχή μας τα ηλεκτροκίνητα σκάφη και η ηλεκτρική πρόωση αποτελούν τμήμα των ηλεκτροκίνητων μέσων μεταφοράς. Τα ηλεκτροκίνητα μέσα μεταφοράς αποτελούν πιθανή λύση στην συνεχώς αυξανόμενη ζήτηση στον τομέα των μεταφορών καθώς και στα ενεργειακά και περιβαλλοντικά προβλήματα που αυτή προκαλεί. Ο υψηλός βαθμός απόδοσης των ηλεκτρικών κινητήρων και των ηλεκτρονικών μετατροπέων ισχύος, το υψηλό επίπεδο ελέγχου μέσω των ηλεκτρονικών μετατροπέων ισχύος που προσφέρει ευκινησία σε ένα σκάφος, η έλλειψη θορύβου-διαταραχών και η απουσία ρύπανσης μας οδηγούν στη χρήση των ηλεκτροκίνητων σκαφών και της ηλεκτρικής πρόωσης όλο και περισσότερο στις μέρες μας. Στη συγκεκριμένη εφαρμογή για πρακτικούς λόγους αλλά και για λόγους ασφάλειας οδηγηθήκαμε στην επιλογή κινητήρα συνεχούς ρεύματος (Σ.Ρ.) μονίμου μαγνήτη χαμηλής τάσης 24V. Αυτό έχει ως αποτέλεσμα υψηλή τιμή ρεύματος για την επίτευξη της απαιτούμενης ισχύος 1,5 kW . Για αυτό το λόγο σχεδιάστηκε και κατασκευάστηκε ο ηλεκτρονικός μετατροπέας υποβιβασμού συνεχούς τάσης σε συνεχή με διαδοχική αγωγή τεσσάρων κλάδων, ο οποίος έχει τη δυνατότητα διαχείρισης υψηλών τιμών ρεύματος και είναι ιδανικός για τέτοιου είδους εφαρμογές. Ο συγκεκριμένος μετατροπέας αποτελείται από 4 παράλληλους κλάδους, λειτουργεί στην συνεχή αγωγή και υποβιβάζει την τάση των 36V σε 0-24V για τον έλεγχο των στροφών του κινητήρα, ο οποίος έχει ονομαστικό ρεύμα 78A. Ο μετατροπέας εξετάστηκε αρχικά μέσω της εξομοίωσης χρησιμοποιώντας το λογισμικό PSpice και στη συνέχεια πειραματικά πραγματοποιώντας μία σειρά από δοκιμές και μετρήσεις. Από τις δοκιμές, παρατηρούμε ότι ο βαθμός απόδοσης του μετατροπέα διαδοχικής αγωγής που κατασκευάστηκε, κυμαίνεται γύρω στο 95%, άρα είναι μια καλή λύση στην οδήγηση κινητήρων συνεχούς ρεύματος (Σ.Ρ.) χαμηλής τάσης (υψηλού ρεύματος). Τέτοιοι κινητήρες χρησιμοποιούνται σε πληθώρα εφαρμογών ηλεκτροκίνητων μέσων μεταφοράς. Η καθέλκυση του ηλεκτροκίνητου σκάφους και οι δοκιμές που πραγματοποιήθηκαν στη θάλασσα, δίνουν σαφή εικόνα των πλεονεκτημάτων της ηλεκτρικής πρόωσης. / The object of this diploma thesis is the designing and the construction of an electric drive system for an electric boat. A number of technical interventions were made to transform a simple boat to an electrically driven boat. In our days the electric boats and the electric propulsion in general constitute a part of the electric transportation. The electric transportation may be a possible solution in the continuously increasing demand in the sector of transports as well as in energy and environmental problems that this causes. The high efficient electric machines and power electronic converters, the high control level of power electronics that offers manoeuvrability in a ship, the lack of noise - disturbance and the absence of pollution lead us to use electric boats and electric propulsion more and more in our days. In our application for practical and safety reasons we were led to the choice of a low voltage permanent magnet direct current (DC) motor. This is resulting to a high value of current to get the nominal power of 1.5 kW. For this reason an interleaved four – channel dc/dc converter was designed and constructed which has the ability to control high currents and is ideal for such type applications. The particular converter is constituted by 4 parallel channels, it is working in the continuous conduction mode (CCM) and it degrades the voltage of 36V to 0-24V for the control of the rpm of the dc propulsion motor which its full load current is 78A. Firstly a number of simulations made via PSpice program and also a number of experiments to see how the converter is working. The experiments shows that the efficiency of the interleaved converter of the application is about 95%, so it is a good solution for driving low voltage – high current dc motors. Such types of electric motors are used in many electric transportation applications. The launching of the boat and a number of sea tests shows us the advantages electric propulsion has.

Des années 50 à nos jours, la propulsion électrique n'a cessé d'évoluer afin de s'imposer dans le domaine de la propulsion spatiale. Les Propulseurs à effet Hall (PEH) sont principalement utilisés pour des missions de correction de trajectoire ou de maintien en orbite des satellites. Ils délivrent des faisceaux d'ions à forte densité de courant et à faible énergie, ce qui en font de bons candidats potentiels pour d'autres applications comme la microélectronique ou encore les traitements de surfaces. Le xénon est l'ergol le plus utilisé en raison de sa masse élevée et de son faible énergie d'ionisation. Cependant son coût élevé et la difficulté d’approvisionnement motivent la recherche d'alternatives pour le fonctionnement des MEH. C'est dans ce cadre que cette thèse s'est inscrite avec l'idée d'un développement d'une source de faible puissance fonctionnelle en argon. L'amorçage d'une telle décharge n'étant pas immédiat, une démarche progressive qui passe par des décharges de mélange de gaz a été adoptée. Les décharges Xe-Ar se sont révélées très intéressantes pour la compréhension des mécanismes physiques qui régissent les PEH. La caractérisation en vitesse des ions Xe II (par Fluorescence Induite par Laser) associée à l'analyse en énergie par RPA a permis de remonter à des informations utiles sur les zones d'ionisation et d'accélération. Une technique originale de résolution temporelle du RPA basée sur une interruption rapide de la décharge ou sur les oscillations naturelles du courant de décharge, a été développée et a permis l'identification et la quantification des différentes espèces présentes dans le jet d'ions. Grâce aux résultats de l'étude paramétrique des décharges de mélange Xe-Ar, une décharge d'argon pur a pu être amorcée et caractérisée pour la première fois dans un PEH de faible puissance. / Since the 50s, electric propulsion has improved in order to establish itself on space propulsion field. The Hall Effect Thruster (HET) are mainly used for trajectory correction or satellites orbit maintaining. The HET provide high current densities and low energy ion beam that making it a good candidate for other applications such as microelectronics or surface treatments. Xenon propellant is most commonly used due to its high atomic mass and its low ionization energy. However, the high cost and difficult supply of xenon, leads to looking for alternative propellant for HET operation. In this context, this PhD thesis had as goal the development of a functional Argon low power source. Argon discharge ignition is not immediate, that why a progressive approach which involves gas mixture discharges was adopted. The Xe-Ar discharge gives very interesting results for the understanding of physical mechanisms governing HET. The characterization of Xe II ions velocity (Laser Induced Fluorescence) associated to the energy analysis by RPA have provided access to useful information on ionization and acceleration areas. An original time resolved RPA technique, based on an ultra-fast discharge interruption or on the discharge current oscillations, has been developed. This technique allows the identification and the quantification of different species present in the ion beam. Thanks to the discharge Xe-Ar study, a pure argon discharge could be initiated and characterized for the first time in a low power HET.

Purpose - This thesis presents a comparison of aircraft design concepts to identify the superior propulsion system model among turbo-hydraulic, turbo-electric and classic jet propulsion with respect to Direct Operating Costs (DOC), environmental impact and fuel burn. --- Approach - A simple aircraft model was designed based on the Top-Level Aircraft Requirements of the Airbus A320 passenger aircraft, and novel engine concepts were integrated to establish new models. Numerous types of propulsion system configurations were created by varying the type of gas turbine engine and number of propulsors. --- Findings - After an elaborate comparison of the aforementioned concepts, the all turbo-hydraulic propulsion system is found to be superior to the all turbo-electric propulsion system. A new propulsion system concept was developed by combining the thrust of a turbofan engine and utilizing the power produced by the turbo-hydraulic propulsion system that is delivered via propellers. The new partial turbo-hydraulic propulsion concept in which 20% of the total cruise power is coming from the (hydraulic driven) propellers is even more efficient than an all turbo-hydraulic concept in terms of DOC, environmental impact and fuel burn. --- Research Limitations - The aircraft were modelled with a spreadsheet based on handbook methods and relevant statistics. The investigation was done only for one type of reference aircraft and one route. A detailed analysis with a greater number of reference aircraft and types of routes could lead to other results. --- Practical Implications - With the provided spreadsheet, the DOC and environmental impact can be approximated for any commercial reference aircraft combined with the aforementioned propulsion system concepts. --- Social Implications - Based on the results of this thesis, the public will be able to discuss the demerits of otherwise highly lauded electric propulsion concepts. --- Value - To evaluate the viability of the hydraulic propulsion systems for passenger aircraft using simple mass models and aircraft design concept.

The present thesis is the result of a research period at the Institute of Space and Astronautical Science of the Japanese Aerospace Exploration Agency, ISAS/JAXA within Funaki Laboratory of the Department of Space Flight Systems that followed the path of plume plasma diagnostics for space electric propulsion drives. During the experimental studies two high-current hollow cathodes and an innovative prototype of a low-voltage fully external discharge plasma thruster (XPT) had their plasma plumes diagnosed using electrostatic probes and retarding potential analyser (RPA). A Hall thruster and hollow cathode plume is defined as an unmagnetised quasi-neutral plasma which is mainly formed of neutral particles, electrons, singly and doubly charged ions. Plasma diagnostic techniques provide information through practical observations in order to fully understand the dynamics of the aforementioned plume components, the physical processes taking place within the plume and their effects on the spacecraft, for instance. Mastering these aspects of the plasma plume of space electric propulsion drives bolster the design processes, leading to highly efficient devices. Firstly, the introduction provides insights on the fundamental principles of hollow cathodes and Hall thrusters and a brief presentation of the plasma diagnostic techniques used during the research: single and double Langmuir probes, emissive probes and retarding potential analyser. Then, the fundamental plume diagnostics principles are depicted in an exhaustive way, departing from classical plasma kinetic theory, energy distribution functions and ending with an overview on the theory of charge collection by cylindrical probes. Subsequently, peculiarities of various analysis techniques are exposed for the Langmuir probes, emissive probes and RPA, with an emphasis on their strengths and demerits. The experimental setups for the cathodes and XPT plume diagnostic procedures are then outlined. The experimental logic, setup and electrical diagrams as well as a presentation of each probe design and manufacturing details are extensively discussed. The hollow cathodes experimental results are exposed with a discourse that aims of overviewing the difference between the various data analysis methods applied for the raw data. A discussion ensued based on the results in order to effectively identify mechanisms that produced the observed plasma parameters distributions. For the first time, the plume of a fully external discharge plasma thruster was diagnosed utilising double Langmuir probes.  The thesis highlights the main results obtained for the XPT far-field plume plasma diagnostics. The experimental findings for both thruster centreline positions and 2D plume maps for several axial distances away from the anode plate offer a ground basis for future measurements, a comparison term and a database to support ongoing computational codes. The results are discussed and related to the thruster performances data obtained during previous experiments. The thesis includes consistency analyses between the experimental data and the numerical simulation results and the uncertainties in measured plasma parameters associated with each data analysis procedure are evaluated for each data set. Last, the conclusions underline the main aspects of the research and further work on the previously mentioned plasma diagnostic techniques for hollow cathodes and XPT is suggested. / La présente thèse est le résultat d'une période de recherche à l'Institut des Sciences Spatiales et Astronautiques de l'Agence Spatiale Japonaise, ISAS / JAXA qui a suivi la voie des diagnostics du plasma de la plume de propulseurs électriques spatiaux. Au cours des études expérimentales, deux cathodes creuses à fort courant et un prototype innovant d'un propulseur basse tension à décharge externe de plasma (XPT) avaient leurs faisceaux de plasma diagnostiqués en utilisant des sondes électrostatiques et un analyseur à potentiel retardé. La plume d’un propulseur à effet Hall et d’une cathode creuse est définie comme un plasma quasi-neutre non-magnétisé qui est principalement formé de particules neutres, d’électrons, d’ions monovalents et bivalents. Les techniques de diagnostic du plasma fournissent des informations, via des observations pratiques, afin de bien comprendre la dynamique des composants de la plume mentionnés ci-dessus, les processus physiques qui se déroulent dans la plume et leurs effets sur une sonde spatiale, par exemple. La maîtrise de ces aspects du plasma de la plume généré par les propulseurs électriques spatiaux renforce les processus de conception de ce type de propulsion, ce qui conduit à des dispositifs hautement efficaces. Tout d'abord, l'introduction donne un aperçu sur les principes fondamentaux de cathodes creuses et de propulseurs à effet Hall, et une brève présentation des techniques de diagnostic du plasma utilisées lors de la recherche : sondes de Langmuir simples et doubles, des sondes émissives et d’analyseur à potentiel retardé. Ensuite, les principes fondamentaux de diagnostic de la plume sont représentés de manière exhaustive, d’abord la théorie cinétique classique du plasma, les fonctions de distribution en énergie et pour terminer une vue d'ensemble de la théorie de la collecte de charge par des sondes cylindriques. Par la suite, les particularités des diverses techniques d'analyse sont exposées pour les sondes de Langmuir, les sondes émissives et RPA, en mettant l'accent sur leurs avantages et leurs inconvénients. Les montages expérimentaux pour les procédures de diagnostic de la plume-plasma de cathodes et du XPT sont ensuite décrits. La logique expérimentale, les schémas électriques ainsi qu'une présentation de la conception et de la fabrication de chaque sonde sont largement discutés. Les résultats expérimentaux pour les cathodes creuses sont exposés de façon à présenter la différence entre plusieurs méthodes d'analyse de données appliquées aux données brutes. Une discussion s’ensuit, basée sur les résultats afin d'identifier efficacement les mécanismes qui ont produits les propriétés électroniques observées. Pour la première fois, la plume d'un propulseur à décharge externe de plasma a été diagnostiquée en utilisant des sondes de Langmuir doubles. La thèse met en évidence les principaux résultats obtenus pour le diagnostic en champ lointain de la plume-plasma du XPT. Les résultats expérimentaux pour les positions sur l'axe du propulseur et le cartes 2D de la plume pour plusieurs distances axiales loin de l’anode offrent une base pour de futures mesures, un terme de comparaison et une base de données pour appuyer les codes numériques. Les résultats sont discutés et sont rapportés aux données de performances du propulseur obtenus lors des essais précédents. La thèse comprend des analyses de la cohérence entre les données expérimentales et les résultats de simulation numérique, et les incertitudes des paramètres mesurés du plasma associées à chaque procédure d'analyse des données sont évaluées pour chaque ensemble de données. Enfin, les conclusions soulignent les principaux aspects de la recherche et une poursuite des travaux sur les techniques de diagnostic de plasma pour les cathodes creuses et le XPT est suggérée.

Purpose - This master thesis evaluates the hybrid-electric aircraft project E-Fan X with respect to its economical and environmental performance in comparison to its reference aircraft, the BAe 146-100. The E-Fan X is replacing one of the four jet engines of the reference aircraft by an electric motor and a fan. A turboshaft engine in the cargo compartment drives a generator to power the electric motor. --- Methodology - The evaluation of this project is based on standard aircraft design equations. Economics are based on Direct Operating Costs (DOC), which are calculated with the method of the Association of European Airlines (AEA) from 1989, inflated to 2019 values. Environmental impact is assessed based on local air quality (NOx, Ozone and Particulate Matter), climate impact (CO2, NOx, Aircraft-Induced Cloudiness known as AIC) and noise pollution estimated with fundamental acoustic equations. --- Findings - The battery on board the E-Fan X it is not necessary. In order to improve the proposed design, the battery was eliminated. Nevertheless, due to additional parts required in the new configuration, the aircraft is 902 kg heavier. The turboshaft engine saves only 59 kg of fuel. The additional mass has to be compensated by a payload reduced by 9 passengers. The DOC per seat-mile are up by more than 10% and equivalent CO2 per seat-mile are more than 16% up in the new aircraft. --- Research limitations - Results are limited in accuracy by the underlying standard aircraft design calculations. The results are also limited in accuracy by the lack of knowledge of some data of the project. --- Practical implications - The report contributes arguments to the discussion about electric flight. --- Social implications - Results show that unconditional praise given to the environmental characteristics of this industry project are not justified.