Les contrôleurs du trafic aérien ou " aiguilleurs du ciel ", dont l'activité consiste à assurer la sécurité de l'écoulement du trafic aérien, vont bientôt être confrontés à une évolution sans précédent de leur activité de travail. Pour pallier à une évolution de contexte, associée principalement à une augmentation significative du niveau de trafic aérien, la construction d'un nouvel environnement de contrôle induisant l'introduction de nouvelles technologies et de l'automatisation partielle de la tâche de contrôle est visée. Ces perspectives, qui ont pour objectif de diminuer les sollicitations des contrôleurs aériens afin d'augmenter le seuil capacitaire de gestion du trafic aérien, suscitent l'interrogation. Notamment, comment assurer la validation de ces évolutions en vue des objectifs visés ? Ce doctorat porte sur l'étude de la charge mentale de contrôleurs aériens dans différents contextes, afin d'évaluer les effets engendrés par de telles modifications apportées à leur environnement de travail quotidien. L'évaluation proposée repose sur une approche multidimensionnelle centrée sur l'analyse de paramètres oculaires enregistrés grâce à une technique d'eye-tracking dans des situations de contrôle écologiquement valides, en référence à la tâche de contrôle du trafic aérien. La première étude a tout d'abord permis de caractériser la gestion de la charge mentale effectuée par les contrôleurs aériens au cours de leur activité dans une situation nominale (reflétant la situation de contrôle du trafic aérien actuelle). La deuxième étude porte sur les effets générés par l'introduction de nouveaux systèmes informatisés d'aide à la décision induisant une automatisation partielle de la tâche de contrôle. Enfin, la dernière étude souligne l'effet du niveau de formation sur les modes de gestion des ressources cognitives employés par les contrôleurs aériens.

Early breast cancer in women is best identified through high quality mammographic screening. This is achieved by well trained health professionals and appropriate imaging. Traditionally this has used X-ray film but is rapidly changing to utilise digital imaging with the resultant mammograms visually examined on high resolution clinical workstations. These digital images can also be viewed on a range of display devices, such as standard computer monitors or PDAs. In this thesis the potential of using such non-clinical workstation display devices for training purposes in breast screening has been investigated. The research introduces and reviews breast screening both in the UK and internationally where it concentrates upon China which is beginning screening. Various imaging technologies used to examine the breast are described, concentrating upon the move from using X-ray film to digital mammograms. Training in screening in the UK is detailed and it is argued that there is a need to extend this. Initially, a national survey of all UK mammography screeners within the National Health Breast Screening Programme (NHSBSP) was undertaken. This highlighted the current main difficulties of mammographic (film) interpretation training being tied to the device for inspecting these images. The screeners perceived the need for future digital imaging training that could be outside the breast screening centre; namely 3W training (Whatever training required, Whenever and Wherever). This is largely because the clinical workstations would logistically not be available for training purposes due to the daily screening demand. Whilst these workstations must be used for screening and diagnostic purposes to allow visualisation of very small detail in the images, it is argued here that training to identify such features can be undertaken on other devices where there is not the time constraints that exist during breast screening. A series of small pilot studies were then undertaken, trialling experienced radiologists with potential displays (PDAs and laptops) for mammographic image examination. These studies demonstrated that even on a PDA small mammographic features could be identified, albeit with difficulty, even with a very limited HCI manipulation tool. For training purposes the laptop, studied here with no HCI tool, was supported. Such promising results of display acceptability led to an investigation of mammographic inspection on displays of various sizes and resolutions. This study employed radiography students, potentially eventual screeners, who were eye tracked as they examined images on various sized displays. This showed that it could be possible to use a small PDA to deliver training. A detailed study then investigated whether aspects of an expert radiologist s visual inspection behaviour could be used to develop various training approaches. Four approaches were developed and examined using naïve observers who were eye tracked as they were trained and tested. The approaches were found to be all feasible to implement but of variable usefulness for delivering mammographic interpretation training; this was confirmed by opinions from a focus group of screeners. On the basis of the previous studies, over a period of eight months, a large scale study involving 15 film readers from major breast screening centres was conducted where they examined series of digital mammograms on a clinical workstation, monitor and an iPhone. Overall results on individuals performance, image manipulation behaviour and visual search data indicated that a standard monitor could be employed successfully as an alternative for the digital workstation to deliver on-demand mammographic interpretation training using the full mammographic case images. The small iPhone, elicited poor performance, and was therefore judged not suitable for delivering training with the software employed here. However, future software developments may well overcome its shortcomings. The potential to implement training in China was examined by studying the current skill level of some practicing radiologists and an examination of how they responded to the developed training approaches. Results suggest that such an approach would be also applicable in other countries with different levels of screening skills. On-going further work is also discussed: the improvement of performance evaluation in mammography; new visual research on other breast imaging modalities and using visual search with computer aided detection to assist mammographic interpretation training.

Eating disorders, such as anorexia and bulimia nervosa, have profound negative effects on the quality of life of both affected individuals and their families. Behavioral approaches such as cognitive-behavioral therapy (CBT) are commonly used for the treatment of these disorders. CBT teaches skills to restructure maladaptive thought patterns as a method of altering feelings and behaviors. However, even after CBT, 50-70% of women with bulimia and 67-87% of women with anorexia report continued eating disordered thoughts, feelings and behaviors. Measuring underlying cognitive processes such as orienting, maintaining, and executive attention in individuals with eating disorder symptomatology might be an important first step in improving these existing therapies. Attentional biases can be identified using a variety of techniques, including eye movement in response to stimuli (gaze patterns; focal points) as assessed by sophisticated eye tracking tasks. The current project sought to evaluate eye movement behavior related to body dissatisfaction, and to assess the feasibility of modifying attention. Participants (N = 1017) completed survey measures assessing disordered eating and body image (n = 1011), and participants meeting eligibility requirements participated in the in-person eye-tracking assessment (n = 85). Overall, longer gaze duration was associated with more dissatisfying body regions, and the attention modification intervention decreased time spent looking at the most dissatisfying region. Gaze time on the most dissatisfying body region was not different for self images compared with other images, nor was there an influence of level of shape concern. Body image anxiety also reduced after the attention modification intervention. These results suggest that it is feasible to modify attention biases related to body dissatisfaction. Implications and future extensions of this study are discussed.

L'analyse des accidents aériens fait ressortir ces dernières années le rôle crucial desopérateurs humains, et leurs erreurs qui peuvent avoir des conséquences dramatiques. Uncas particulier d’erreur humaine reste cependant peu abordé : la surdité inattentionnelle,c’est-à-dire l’incapacité temporaire à entendre, à prendre conscience d’une informationauditive. Dans le domaine de l’aéronautique, cette défaillance cognitive est évidementcritique, car elle signifie l’omission d’alarmes auditives. Le premier enjeu de ce projet derecherche est de définir des métriques comportementales et physiologiquescaractéristiques de la surdité inattentionnelle. Pour cela, nous nous sommes intéressés enparticulier à deux postes de travail fondamentaux de la sécurité aérienne et soumis à desalarmes auditives : le pilotage et le contrôle aérien. Nous avons cherché à mettre enévidence les conditions contextuelles favorisant l’apparition de la surdité inattentionnelle,notamment la charge de travail des opérateurs. Un second enjeu était d’identifier despistes d’adaptation des interfaces avec les pilotes et les contrôleurs aériens, permettant deprévenir ou limiter la surdité inattentionnelle à ces postes spécifiques. Pour répondre àcette problématique, 3 expériences ont été menées. La première a étudié l’impact de lacharge de travail sur le traitement des alarmes auditives lors d’une tâche d’atterrissage.Elle a permis de déterminer que la P300 était un indicateur de la surdité. La secondeexpérimentation a porté sur l’impact du design des alarmes visuelles sur les capacités detraitement cognitif des alarmes auditives, dans le cadre du contrôle aérien. Les résultatsnous ont montré une restauration de la P3b auditive avec le design visuel amélioré. Enfinla dernière expérience a testé la pertinence de mesures oculaires pour détecter lescontextes favorisant la surdité inattentionnelle. Ces résultats ouvrent des pistesprometteuses de prévention et de détection de la surdité inattentionnelle aux postescritiques de la sécurité aérienne. / The analysis of airplane accidents has recently highlighted the crucial role of humanoperators, their mistakes having potential dramatic consequences. A specific type ofhuman error remains little discussed: inattentional deafness, which is defined as thetemporary inability to hear or to become aware of auditory information. In aeronautics,this cognitive failure is obviously critical because it can lead to the omission of auditoryalarms. The first challenge of this research project is to define behavioral and physiologicalcharacteristics of inattentional deafness. For this purpose, we focused on the twofundamental jobs in aviation safety and subjected to auditory alarms: piloting and airtraffic control. We planned to highlight the contextual conditions favoring the appearanceof inattentional deafness, in particular the operators' workload. A second challenge was toidentify potential adaptation in the interfaces with pilots and air traffic controllers toprevent or limit the apparition inattentional deafness. To address these issues, threeexperiments were conducted. The first experiment studied the impact of workload on thetreatment of auditory alarms during a landing task. It was determined that P3b was anindicator of deafness. The second experiment focused on the impact of design visualalarms on cognitive processing abilities auditory alarms, as part of air traffic control. Theresults showed a restoration of auditory P300 with the enhanced visual design us. Finally,the last experiment tested the relevance of eye measurements to detect contexts favoringinattentional deafness. These results open promising possibilities for prevention anddetection of inattentional deafness in critical positions of aviation safety.

A neotenia é um importante processo biológico-evolutivo que conserva traços fenotípicos do jovem no indivíduo adulto. A neotenia modifica a velocidade típica da ontogênese das características morfológicas compartilhadas pelos ancestrais. Essas mudanças podem representar oportunidades de mudanças fenotípicas dramáticas com poucas alterações genéticas, possibilitando alterações de estados especializados. O etólogo Konrad Lorenz reconheceu características neotênicas em humanos e algumas espécies de mamíferos na fórmula estrutural do corpo (principalmente da face) típica de infantes. Essa fórmula corpórea foi batizada por Lorenz de Kindchenschema. Os humanos típicos respondem quando observam traços infantis ativando uma resposta chamada de Efeito Kindchenschema (EK). Neste efeito verifica-se uma diminuição da agressividade, estimulação do cuidado parental e engajamento social. São raros os trabalhos de escaneamento do olhar em portadores de disfunções do neurodesenvolvimento, como a Síndrome de Williams (SW) e o Transtorno do Espectro Autista (TEA). O presente trabalho é o primeiro na literatura a investigar o escaneamento do olhar em portadores de SW e TEA usando estímulos faciais neotênicos de humanos e animais. Na presente investigação foram estudados 21 portadores de SW e 25 portadores de TEA, o grupo controle (GC) contou com 33 participantes. Encontramos uma correspondência entre os resultados declarados do estímulo preferido e o tempo de fixação. Os resultados mostraram que todos os participantes fixaram mais a região dos olhos de humanos e animais, sendo que o GC fixou mais tempo do que os portadores de SW e TEA. Foi possível separar usando o tempo de fixação nos olhos e HeatMaps os três grupos investigados. É viável a produção de um exame clínico auxiliar rápido e não-invasivo para indivíduos com suspeita de uma disfunção do neurodesenvolvimento. Talvez a região do nariz e boca sejam menos importantes e as orelhas mais importantes do que pensávamos nos estímulos neotênicos. Os estímulos mais neotênicos de infantes humanos e animais produziram um padrão semelhantes do tempo de fixação nos três grupos estudados. Esses resultados demonstram que portadores de SW e TEA respondem positivamente a estímulos faciais neotênicos. Sugerimos que as novas investigações na área incorporem também como variáveis faciais as orelhas, cor do cabelo e olhos, e simetria facial / Neoteny is an important biological-evolutionary process that retains phenotypic traits of the young in the adult individual of a species. Neoteny modifies the typical ontogeny velocity of the morphological characteristics shared with the ancestors. These changes may represent opportunities for dramatic phenotype modifications with few genetic changes, allowing for alterations in specialized states. The ethologist Konrad Lorenz has recognized neotenic characteristics in humans and some species of mammals in the structural formula of the body (mainly of the face) typical of infants. This body formula was named by Lorenz Kindchenschema. Typical humans respond when they observe infant traits by activating a response called the Kindchenschema Effect (KE). In this effect, there is a decrease in aggressiveness, stimulation of parental care and social engagement. There is a paucity of eye scanning in individuals with neurodevelopmental disorders such as Williams Syndrome (WS) and Autistic Spectrum Disorder (ASD). The present work is the first in the literature to investigate the eye scanning in WS and ASD patients using neotenic facial stimuli of humans and animals. In the present investigation, 21 WS and 25 ASD participants were studied. The control group (CG) had 33 participants. We found a correspondence between the stated results of the preferred stimulus and the fixation time. The results showed that all the participants fixed more the region of the eyes of humans and animals, and the CG fixed more time than the WS and ASD participants. It was possible to distinguish, using the fixation time in the eyes and Heat Maps, the three groups. The production of a rapid and non-invasive auxiliary clinical examination is feasible for individuals suspected in presenting a neurodevelopmental dysfunction. Perhaps the nose and mouth areas are less important, and the ears are more important than previously considered with respect. The more neotenic stimuli of human and animal infants produced a similar pattern of fixation time in the three groups studied. This may represent a greater adaptive value than we thought of those with WS and ASD. We suggest that the new investigations can also incorporate facial variables as ears, hair color and eyes, and facial symmetry

A implantação da TV Digital Terrestre no Brasil permite que os usuários da TV aberta, principal fonte de informação e entretenimento do país, tenham acesso aos serviços oferecidos pela TV Interativa (TVi). Estes usuários, que constituem uma grande e heterogênea população composta por indivíduos de diversos graus de instrução, faixas etárias e índices de alfabetização digital, passam a adotar uma atitude muito mais ativa em relação a este meio de comunicação tradicionalmente coletivo e passivo, aumentando a possibilidade de escolha e a oferta de conteúdos personalizados. A TVi se torna possível na forma de aplicações interativas enviadas junto com o conteúdo audiovisual da TV. Neste cenário, o rastreamento do olhar, técnica usada para identificar as posições observadas pelo usuário, se apresenta como uma poderosa ferramenta de análise capaz de identificar comportamentos típicos dos usuários, enquanto produz evidências conclusivas, mensuráveis e repetíveis das atividades observadas durante a interação do usuário com a aplicação. Esta pesquisa explora a utilização da técnica de rastreamento do olhar na avaliação de usabilidade de aplicações de TVi e estuda como o rastreamento do olhar pode ser usado para obter dados sobre a interação com estas aplicações. Para tanto, a literatura sobre rastreamento do olhar é investigada, identificando as técnicas e métodos empregados para obter as posições observadas pelos usuários, assim como o uso destas técnicas em avaliações de usabilidade. Para estudar a utilização do rastreamento de olhar em avaliações de usabilidade no ambiente de uso das aplicações da TVi, são feitas adaptações nos sistemas para coleta de dados do rastreamento de olhar no ambiente de TVi. Em seguida, desenvolve-se um experimento em que as técnicas de rastreamento de olhar são usadas simultaneamente com as técnicas clássicas de avaliação de usabilidade, para avaliação de duas aplicações de TVi. Os procedimentos e o ambiente de teste utilizado são apresentados em detalhes. Os resultados obtidos da realização do experimento com 30 usuários, com ambas as técnicas, são comparados, mostrando as contribuições e limitações do rastreamento do olhar para explicar problemas de usabilidade e identificar comportamentos dos usuários. / The introduction of digital terrestrial TV in Brazil allows users of free TV, the main source of information and entertainment in the country, to have access to services offered by Interactive TV (TVi). These users, who constitute a large and heterogeneous population, composed of individuals of varying degrees of education, age and knowledge of computers, will adopt a more proactive attitude regarding this means of communication traditionally collective and passive, raising the possibility of choice and supply of personalized content. The TVi becomes possible in the form of interactive applications sent together with audiovisual content of TV. In this scenario, the eye tracking, technique used for identifying positions observed by the user, presents itself as a powerful analysis tool with the ability to identify typical behavior of users, while producing conclusive, measurable and repeatable evidence about the activities observed during the interaction of users with applications. This research explores the use of eye tracking technique in the usability evaluation of TVis applications and examines how eye tracking can be used to obtain data about users and applications interaction. Hence, the eye tracking literature is investigated; identifying techniques and methods used to obtain the observed positions by users, and how to use these techniques in the usability evaluation. To study the use of the eye tracking in usability evaluations that took place in the environment of use of TVi\'s applications, changes are made in the systems that collect the eye tracking data on this environment. Then, an experiment in which the eye tracking techniques are used together to the traditional usability evaluation techniques is developed to evaluate two TVi\'s applications. The test procedures and the test environment are presented in details. The experiment results, with 30 users, using traditional and eye tracking evaluation techniques are compared, showing the contributions and limitations of eye tracking to explain usability problems and to identify users behaviors.

Based on an analysis of the smart city and smart region concepts and case studies, the aim of the thesis was to identify the possibilities of their use in the tourism industry and to create a proposal for their application in selected tourist destinations. In cooperation with the selected destination of Písek, which endorses the smart city concept, and based on discussions with city representatives, the objective was narrowed down to the introduction of new iBeacon technology implemented in Písek through the eCulture project. This technology helps fulfil the concept of the smart city as a tourist destination. The main goal of applying this method is effective presentation of the City of Písek. Together with the destination company Píseckem, s.r.o., a total of 12 beacons were proposed in the historic city centre and three more in its immediate vicinity. First, the content of individual beacons was prepared in the practical part of the research, which was divided into basic and supplementary text. The basic text provides the main information, while the supplementary text is primarily designed to attract attention. Subsequently, the destination company was provided with graphic designs for display-ing information to end-users through selected beacons. To ensure effective presentation of the City of Písek through iBeacon technol-ogy, selected visuals were tested with an eye camera. Eye tracking is a modern research method in which the eye movements of participants (respondents) are monitored. The results were presented using heat maps, which show the intensity with which individual places in the graphic design are viewed by respondents. The proposal part of the thesis was prepared based on the results of eye tracking tests and subsequent in-depth interviews. A total of four graphic designs were created, namely beacon 01 (Great Square), beacon 02 (Town Hall Courtyard), beacon 03 (Church of the Exaltation of the Holy Cross) and beacon 05 (Bakaláře).

Eye fixations of the face are normally directed towards either the eyes or the mouth, however the proportions of gaze to either of these regions are dependent on context. Previous studies of gaze behavior demonstrate a tendency to stare into a target’s eyes, however no studies investigate the differences between when participants believe they are engaging in a live interaction compared to knowingly watching a pre-recorded video, a distinction that may contribute to studies of memory encoding. This study examined differences in fixation behavior for when participants falsely believed they were engaging in a real-time interaction over the internet (“Real-time stimulus”) compared to when they knew they were watching a pre-recorded video (“Pre-recorded stimulus”). Results indicated that participants fixated significantly longer towards the eyes for the pre-recorded stimulus than for the real-time stimulus, suggesting that previous studies which utilize pre-recorded videos may lack ecological validity. / Includes bibliography. / Thesis (M.S.)--Florida Atlantic University, 2016. / FAU Electronic Theses and Dissertations Collection

En 2007, une étude menée par Hamlin, Wynn et Bloom a montré qu’à 6 mois les jeunes enfants disposent de capacités d’évaluation sociale, qui s’illustrent dans leur préférence pour des personnages prosociaux. Depuis, de nombreuses études ont tenté de retrouver la préférence pour un personnage prosocial. Parmi elles, certaines n’ont pas retrouvé ce résultat, questionnant la solidité de ces capacités.L’objectif de cette thèse est de tester l’existence et la robustesse de la préférence pour un comportement prosocial chez les jeunes enfants en manipulant : 1) l’âge (6, 12, 18, 24, 36 mois), le type de scénario social (aide, jeu, partage), et l’apparence faciale des agents prosociaux et antisociaux (familière ou inhabituelle). Dans cet objectif, quatre études ont été réalisées auprès de 446 enfants âgés de 6 à 36 mois qui ont visionné des dessins animés faisant interagir des agents prosociaux et antisociaux. Leurs préférences ont été identifiées par un geste de pointage/atteinte ou à l’aide d’un oculomètre.Nos résultats montrent que la préférence pour un comportement prosocial est observée quasiment à tous les âges testés, et varie en fonction du scénario social. Enfin, dans les situations sensées être conflictuelles au regard des préférences des jeunes enfants, ces derniers n’expriment majoritairement pas de préférence. L’ensemble des résultats remettent en question la solidité d’une préférence précoce pour un comportement prosocial et questionnent les conditions nécessaires à son observation. Les résultats de cette thèse sont discutés à la lumière de questionnements méthodologiques et d’études récentes qui fragilisent les résultats princeps d’Hamlin et ses collaborateurs. / In 2007, a study carried out by Hamlin, Wynn, and Bloom showed that infants aged 6 months are able to make social evaluation, that could be identified through their preference for prosocial characters. Since, a number of studies have tried to confirm this preference for prosocial characters. Of these, some did not find similar result, raising question on the robustness of this ability.This dissertation aims to test the existence and the strength of the preference for prosocial behaviors in infants by manipulating: 1) age (6, 12, 18, 24 and 36 months), the type of the social scenario (help, play, share), and the facial appearance of the prosocial and antisocial agents (familiar or unusual). To that end, four studies have been carried out with 446 infants aged 6 to 36 months who were shown specially designed animated cartoons in which prosocial and antisocial agents interacted. Infants’ preference was identified through their pointing/reaching gesture or assessed by an eye-tracker. Our results show that the preference for the prosocial behaviors was observed in nearly all the tested age, and varied according to the social scenario. Finally, in the situation assumed to be conflicting infants' preferences, infants mostly did not express any preference. All results challenge the strength of the preference for prosocial behaviors as well as the conditions that must be met to observe it. The results of this dissertation are discussed in the light of methodological issues and recent studies that weaken Hamlin and collaborators’ original results.

This study aims to examine how an audience reacts to and perceives news from Swedish public service versus Swedish alternative media. The study was conducted upon three news articles from public service and three articles from alternative media. To be able to examine this we used three types of methods: Eye-tracking, Galvanic Skin Response, and the qualitative interview. We used theories about news reception, encoding/decoding and “The media is the message”. Our main results showed that people, according to themselves, tend to react in a more negative way to articles from alternative media, even though the eye-tracking and GSR-analysis showed that there were no big differences in how people reacted to public service versus alternative media. It was also shown that people have a more critical attitude towards articles from alternative media than towards articles from public service.