This volume examines the relationship between female beauty ideals and concepts of femininity in different ethnic groups. Understanding the body as a carrier of social and cultural signs, it attempts to connect the direct and indirect implications of specific techniques of body modification with the social roles of women within their respective ethnic groups.

BACKGROUND Female genital mutilation is a traditional procedure that harms women's and girls' health globally, based on a social construct in which women are seen as private property of men and are considered objects that meet men's sexual needs. PURPOSE The purpose of the study was to describe how women who have been subjected to genital mutilation experience health, mental and social well-being. METHOD A literature review containing eight qualitative and two mixed methods original articles. The text has been discussed based on Madeleine Leininger's theory of diversity and universality in culture-related care. RESULTS: The result revealed tree themes and sub-themes: Deteriorating sexual health, sexual health and longing for intimacy and pleasure; Well-being, physical suffering and mental suffering; Experiences of health. Female genital mutilation affected health, mental and social well-being in different ways. Some participants in the analyzed studies justify genital mutilation through religion and some through culture, but all agreed that non-genitally mutilated women have less opportunity for marriage. CONCLUSIONS: The results show that women who have undergone female genital mutilation have a complex problem that affects their health both mentally and physically. / BAKGRUND Kvinnlig könsstympning är ett traditionellt ingrepp som skadar kvinnors och flickors hälsa globalt, grundad på en social konstruktion i vilken kvinnan ses som privat egendom till mannen och betraktas som föremål som uppfyller mannens sexuella behov. SYFTE Syftet med studien var att beskriva hur kvinnor som utsatts för könsstympning upplever hälsan, psykiska och sociala välbefinnandet. METOD En litteraturöversikt som innehåller primära källor av åtta kvalitativa och två mixade metoder. Texten diskuterats utifrån Madeleine Leiningers teori om mångfald och universalitet i kulturrelaterad omvårdnad. RESULTAT I resultatet framkom tre teman med subteman: Försämrad sexuell hälsa, sexuell hälsa och längtan efter intimitet och njutning; Välbefinnande, fysisk lidande och psykisk lidande; Upplevelser av hälsan. Kvinnlig könsstympning påverkade hälsan, det psykiska och sociala välbefinnandet på olika sätt. En del av deltagare i de analyserade studier motiverar könsstympningen genom religion och en del genom kultur men alla kom överens om att icke-könsstympade kvinnor har mindre möjligheter till äktenskap. SLUTSATSER Resultatet visar på att kvinnor som genomgått kvinnlig könsstympning har en komplex problematik som påverkar hälsan både psykiskt och fysiskt.

BAKGRUND: Kvinnlig könsstympning är en traditionell sed djupt rotad i kultur och religion. Ingreppet innebär ett delvist eller fullständigt avlägsnande eller annan skada på de kvinnliga genitalierna av icke medicinska skäl. Ingreppet medför allvarliga hälsorisker och påverkar kvinnors sexuella hälsa. Idag beräknas över 200 miljoner kvinnor och flickor vara könsstympade världen över. För att kunna erbjuda dessa kvinnor vård av högsta kvalité är det av vikt att sjuksköterskan besitter djupare kunskap om fenomenet. SYFTE: Beskriva upplevelsen av sexuell hälsa hos kvinnor som har genomgått könsstympning. METOD: En deskriptiv litteraturöversikt som bygger på tio artiklar med en kvalitativ ansats samt en artikel med en mixad metod. För artikelsökningarna har databaserna Cinahl Complete och PubMed använts. Analysen har utförts i enlighet med Polit och Beck (2021). RESULTAT: Litteraturöversikten resulterade i två kategorier och fyra underkategorier; Fysiska erfarenheter; Att begränsas i sin sexuella hälsa & att leva med smärtsamma komplikationer samt Psykiska erfarenheter; Att få men för livet & att känna bristen på lust och intimitet. SLUTSATS: FGM har en negativ verkan på kvinnans sexuella hälsa. Studiens data visar att en kunskapsbrist föreligger hos sjuksköterskor gällande FGM. För att främja god sexuella hälsa behöver sjuksköterskor tydligare riktlinjer samt mer kunskap om ingreppets kulturella rötter och konsekvenser. / BACKGROUND: Female genital mutilation is a traditional practice deeply rooted in culture and religion. The procedure involves a partial or complete removal or other harm to the female genitalia for non-medical reasons. The procedure poses serious health risks and affects women's sexual health. Today, more than 200 million women and girls are estimated to be genital mutilated worldwide. In order to offer these women care of the highest quality it is of great importance that the nurse possesses deeper knowledge of the phenomenon. AIM: Highlight the experience of sexual health in women who have undergone genital mutilation. METHOD: A descriptive literature review based on ten articles with a qualitative approach and one article with a mixed method. For article searches, databases Cinahl Complete and PubMed have been used. The analysis has been carried out in accordance with Polit and Beck (2021). RESULT: The literature review resulted in two categories and four subcategories; Physical experiences; To be limited in their sexual health & to live with painful complication as well as Mental experiences; To be permanently marked & to feel the lack of desire and intimacy. CONCLUSION: FGM has a negative effect on women's sexual health. The study's data show that there is a lack of knowledge amongst nurses regarding FGM. To promote good sexual health nurses need clearer guidelines as well as more knowledge about the cultural roots of the procedure and its consequences.

Kenya is one of the Sub-Saharan countries that continue to experience incidences of FGM among various ethnic communities. While FGM prevalence has reduced significantly in the last decade due to government crackdowns and the adoption of relevant anti-practice laws, several Kenyan communities continue to circumcise girls and women secretly. The current study sought to examine the role of socioeconomic factors in the continuation of FGM in Kenya. The study was guided by the tenets of structural functionalism. This theory was selected because of its efficacy in explaining how institutions such as family, economy, and education contribute to the persistence of FGM among Kenyan communities. The study utilized grounded theory as the principal methodology. Research materials in this study included scholarly sources published in credible databases. The strong association between marriageability and FGM, Islam, cultural rigidity, the fear of social stigma, the view of circumcision as a rite of passage, and the perceived safety offered by medicalization have ensured the continuation of the practice. From an economic standpoint, the depiction of FGM as a prerequisite to bride price, as well as the monetization of the practice by medical practitioners and families, have contributed significantly to its persistence.

Sammanfattning Bakgrund: Kvinnlig könsstympning är en hälso- och människorättsfråga som sträcker sig till västländer. Det uppskattas att det bor omkring 125 miljoner kvinnor med kvinnlig könsstympning över hela världen. Ungefär 38 000 könsstympade kvinnor lever i Sverige, varav 7000 är flickor som är underåriga. Förekomsten av kvinnlig könsstympning är högst i de afrikanska länderna, men kan även förekomma på andra håll i världen, såsom mellanöstern. Det finns inga hälsofördelar med kvinnlig könsstympning. Däremot har könsstympning både kortsiktiga och långsiktiga negativa hälsokonsekvenser som kan leda till fysiska och psykologiska problem. Syfte: Syftet med denna litteraturöversikt är att beskriva hur könsstympade kvinnor upplever mötet med sjukvården.Metod: En beskrivande litteraturstudie som är baserad på elva empiriska originalstudier. Studierna söktes i databasen PubMed. Resultat: Efter sammanfattande av de elva studierna identifierades två huvudteman som är “negativa upplevelser av möten med sjukvården” och “positiva upplevelser av möten med sjukvården”. Det första huvudtemat inkluderar tre underteman: “könsstympade kvinnors upplevelse av att känna sig uttittad av vårdpersonalen”, “könsstympade kvinnors upplevelse av att känna sig tvingade till kejsarsnitt” och “könsstympade kvinnors upplevelse av brister i kommunikationen med vården”. Slutsats: Könsstympade kvinnor hade negativa och positiva upplevelser vid sina möten med sjukvården. Könsstympade kvinnor stötte på negativa attityder när de mötte sina vårdgivare, såsom kränkande kommentarer, kommunikationssvårigheter och saknad av respekt. En del könsstympade kvinnor upplevde även att de blev tvingade till ett kejsarsnitt. Vissa kvinnors erfarenheter och upplevelser av mötet med sjukvården tyder på en markant frånvaro av empatisk och professionell vård samt kunskapsluckor hos vårdpersonalen om kvinnlig könsstympning. En mer patientcentrerad och mänsklig rättighetsbaserad vård bör tillämpas för att kunna erbjuda en omvårdnad av hög kvalitet till dessa kvinnor. Nyckelord: Hälso- och sjukvårdspersonal, Kvinnlig könsstympning, Omskärelse, Upplevelse / ABSTRACT Background: Female genital mutilation is a health and human rights issue that extends to Western countries. It is estimated that there are around 125 million women with female genital mutilation worldwide. About 38,000 women with genital mutilation live in Sweden, of which 7,000 are girls who are minors. The prevalence of female genital mutilation is highest in African countries, but can also occur elsewhere in the world, such as in the Middle East. There are no health benefits of female genital mutilation. However, genital mutilation has both short-term and long-term negative health consequences that can lead to physical and psychological problems. Aim: The purpose of this literature review is to describe how women with genital mutilation experience the encounter with healthcare. Method: A descriptive literature study based on eleven empirical original studies. The PubMed database was used to search for the studies. Results: After summarizing the eleven studies, two main themes were identified which are "negative experiences of encounters with healthcare" and "positive experiences of encounters with healthcare". The first main themes include three sub-themes: "women with genital mutilation’s experience of feeling stared at by healthcare providers”, "women with genital mutilation’s experience of being forced to have a caesarean section" and “women with genital mutilation’s experience of shortcomings in communication with health care providers". Conclusion: Women with genital mutilation had both negative and positive experiences in their encounters with healthcare. Women with genital mutilation encountered negative attitudes when they met their caregivers, such as abusive comments, communication difficulties and lack of respect. Some women with genital mutilation experienced also that they were forced to have a caesarean section. Some women's experiences of their encounters with health care indicate a marked absence of empathic and professional care as well as knowledge gaps among the healthcare providers about female genital mutilation. A more patient-centered and human rights-based care should be applied to be able to offer high-quality care to these women. Keyword: Circumcision, Experience, Female genital mutilation, Healthcare personnel

Over 200 million women and girls alive today have been victims of Female Geni-tal Mutilation / Cutting, and another 3,6 million are at risk every year. This tradi-tional practice is widespread and has gained a lot of attention from Non-governmental organizations, scholars and medical professionals around the world, stating warnings about the harmful effects. Yet, the prevalence and continuance are still not regressing in a desirable rate. Many countries have enacted legislative actions against the practice, among these countries is the West African nation of The Gambia. The purpose of this qualitative study is to examine and analyse what experiences and perceptions NGOs in The Gambia have with using legislative ac-tion against FGM /C, how their work has changed due to the legislation as well as examine their perception on local community attitudes towards the law. This has been done using the theories of Cultural Relativism vs Universalism and through selected concepts within Hofstede's Theory of Cultural Dimensions. This study will theorise what happens when a law representing western norms and values gets implemented in a society where culture, traditions and the collective group is high-ly important. Our findings show that The Gambia, in particularly local communi-ties, holds a strong cultural relativistic mentality and is characterized by a collec-tivistic culture in which the power distance is high. This society puts emphasis on collective identity, solidarity and collective decisions as well as traditional heritage and cultural values. Implementing a law that promotes western values thus brings problems and a lack of efficiency.

Magister Artium (Development Studies) - MA(DVS) / Background: Sexual and reproductive health (SRH) is a right that should be guaranteed to every woman worldwide in order to have a healthy and safe sex life. In most Arab countries, including Egypt, there are different cultural, political, and religious factors that have contributed significantly to the manner that the society views and treats women’s bodies and sexuality. As a result, it is difficult to provide solid data and information to guide policymakers, policies, and to implement awareness and preventive programs. This thesis sought to address this gap by conducting a study looking at the intersectionality of women’s access to sexual and reproductive health services and information in Ismailia, Egypt. Methods: The relevant information was collected using qualitative methods. Semi-structured interviews were conducted with twelve married women and two key informant interviews with health professionals in the study area. Results: Intersectional theory was used to critically examine the various interacting factors such as gender, patriarchy, economic disadvantages, and other discriminatory systems that that can undermine women’s access to SRH information and services. The study revealed that married women suffer from the lack of access to proper SRH services and information. Conclusion: Married women’s experiences of accessing SRH services and information were affected by different intersecting factors. These factors are socio-economic, policy, cultural norms, power structure contexts, and privilege structures, and religious institutions. Recommendations were drafted to add more information and evidence related to Egyptian women and their SRH rights.

Bakgrund: Kvinnlig könsstympning är en flera tusen år gammal kulturell tradition som företrädesvis sker i afrikanska länder. Ingreppet medför mycket allvarliga, både omedelbara och långsiktiga, komplikationer. Antalet könsstympade flickor och kvinnor i världen uppskattas till 140 miljoner. Globaliseringen har gjort att kvinnor som utsatts för ingreppet kan komma i kontakt med hälso- och sjukvårdpersonal som inte har någon tidigare erfarenhet av denna patientgrupp. Syfte: Att belysa hur kvinnor som utsatts för könsstympning upplever bemötandet i hälso- och sjukvården. Metod: En litteraturstudie baserad på tolv vetenskapliga studier av kvalitativ ansats. Resultat: Resultatet utgjordes av fjorton underteman som bildade tre huvudteman, som i sin tur belyste förutsättningar för en god upplevelse av bemötandet i hälso- och sjukvården; kunskap, respekt och empati samt kommunikation. Slutsats: För att öka kunskapen om kvinnlig könsstympning krävs utbildning av studenter och befintlig hälso- och sjukvårdspersonal. En ökad kulturell kompetens krävs för att undvika ett bemötande med brist på respekt och empati. För att främja en god kommunikation krävs tillgång till pålitliga och kompetenta tolkar. Klinisk betydelse: Det finns ett stort behov av rutiner och riktlinjer gällande vård av kvinnor som utsatts för könsstympning. / Background: Female genital mutilation is a several thousand year old cultural tradition, which mostly occurs in African countries. The procedure involves very serious, both immediate and long-term, complications. The number of genitally mutilated girls and women in the world is estimated at 140 million. Globalization has meant that girls and women subjected to the procedure may come into contact with health care professionals with no prior experience in this patient group. Aim: To describe how women subjected to genital mutilation is experiencing the encounter with health services. Method: A literature review based on twelve scientific studies with a qualitative approach. Results: The result consists of fourteen sub-themes forming three main themes, which in turn highlights the prerequisites for a good experience of the encounter in the health care; knowledge, respect and empathy and communication. Conclusion: To increase knowledge about female genital mutilation education of students and existing health-care professionals is required. An increased cultural competence is necessary to avoid an encounter with a lack of respect and empathy. To promote good communication, access to reliable and competent interpreters is required. Clinical significance: The results show that there is a great need for routines and policies relating to care of women who have undergone genital mutilation.

Female circumcision (FC) is the partial or total removal of the female genitalia for nonmedical reasons. This study was designed to examine the lived experiences of Somali women who underwent FC before coming to the United States. FC is widely carried out in Somalia with a prevalence of 98%, making Somalia the country with the highest percentage of circumcised women. There are short- and long-term consequences associated with FC such as bleeding, infection, and death. Therefore, it is important to understand how Somali women who underwent FC think and feel about circumcision, why they would continue the practice, and whether they would recommend the practice for others. Using a qualitative research method with a phenomenological approach aligned with the use of social convention theory as a conceptual framework, data were collected from 12 Somali women who underwent FC, who were living in the United States at the time of the study, who were 18 years old and above and who were recruited online through SurveyMonkey without disclosing their identities. Thirty-five open-ended questions were posted online for participants to complete. Interpretative Phenomenological Analysis method was used for data analysis. The respondents reported experiencing negative consequences from FC practice including pain, miscarriages, and heavy bleeding. The majority of the women in the study supported the eradication of FC in all forms. Based on the findings of this study, possible implications for positive social change include enabling health professionals to create culturally-diverse education and care and altering the social convention of FC so that the morbidity and mortality caused by FC is reduced and the lives of girls and women in Somalia are improved.

This thesis will investigate to what extent the midwifery programme atselected Swedish universities is including the issue of female genitalmutilation (FGM) into their education and curriculum. This is an importantsubject to do research on since a lot of existing literature on the topic showsthat midwives in Sweden are seriously lacking in knowledge regarding thepractice of FGM. According to a study done by Tamaddon et al. (2006) lessthan 30% of the Swedish midwives believed that they had adequateknowledge of FGM. Another study of the issue of FGM showed thatSwedish midwives felt that their knowledge of FGM was lacking and that itwas a marginalized issue on their place of work (Widmark et al. 2002).The reason to why the focus of my research will be on midwifery studentsand teachers within the midwifery program is because the healthprofessionals who is most likely to meet circumcised women are midwives.According to Dawson et al. (2015) “Midwives are often the first providerswomen will see for their maternal health needs and therefore play a criticalrole in providing quality care and preventing the practice” (Dawson et al.2015 p 230).The chosen research topic fits smoothly into the broader peace anddevelopment area due to what has been mentioned earlier, the increase inpeople movement in the world today makes some issues a global challenge.Which has been the case of the practice of FGM, it is now time to understandthat this is no longer an issue only in the countries were FGM is traditionallypracticed, it is an issue and especially a challenge even in high incomecountries.The method to be used in this research is semi-structured interviews with acareful sampling process of participants, done by a purposive sampling. Itwill be a qualitative study based on a cross-sectional design.