The research main goal was to obtain data and analyze the morphology and reproduction of small mammals. Since little data is available, it was analyzed the relation between small mammals body structure (dimensions) and the forest strata. The population variation and its reproduction were analyzed with regard to the season, as well as to its reproductive parameters, such as sexual dimorphism, offspring and testicles size. Although currently the animals are in a museum (UFSM), they were previously captured using 72 pitfalls, which were positioned in three areas. This was done for 5 days every month, from December 2000 to September 2002. External measurements, such as body size, arm, leg, tail, ear, whiskers, toe size and biggest toe, were taken for all species with adequate number of adults. The most frequent species found were the rodents Akodon toba, Calomys cf. callosus, Oecomys bicolor and Oryzomys nitidus. The genders were analyzed separately due to the existing differences in sex. The sizes were then compared through the Multivariate Analysis of Covariance (MANCOVA) between species. A Discriminant Analysis was performed to verify which morphological variable better explain the difference between the samples. The characteristic that better explained the differences between the species was the tail, which was relatively short for terrestrial species (such as Akodon toba e Calomys cf. callosus) and comparatively long (similar to the body size) for the species Oecomys bicolor e Oryzomys nitidus. The wider foot and longer whiskers for O. bicolor, the bigger toe for O. nitidus, longer tail and toes for both are characteristics which are probably related to their arboreal and scansorial habitat, respectively. These species were more abundant in the warm season and beginning of the cold season, there have not been major differences between males and females. There was, though, a difference between youngsters and adults for A. toba e O. nitidus. Akodon toba had more youngsters in the warm season, while the O. nitidus had it during the cold season. Available resources influenced the reproduction of males and females, as well as the occurrence of young and adults in the population. Callomys cf. callosus presented larger nesting (5.17) while O. bicolor had smaller ones (2.33). Only Callomys cf. callosus presented sexual dimorphism with regard to the body length and tail, with males bigger in size. That shows a promiscuous mating system for these species. The testicles analysis (internal measurement) with reference to the scrotal testes (external measurement) had no difference for these species, but they were bigger for bigger body size for each species. / Visando obter dados a respeito da morfometria e reprodução de pequenos mamíferos neotropicais, devido aos poucos estudos disponíveis, foi analisada a relação das dimensões do corpo com o uso do estrato vertical em uma área de floresta estacional no oeste do Brasil e a variação populacional e reprodutiva em relação à estação climática, bem como seus parâmetros reprodutivos, tais como o dimorfismo sexual, tamanho de prole e tamanho de testículos. Embora os espécimes tenham sido obtidos de museu (UFSM), foram utilizadas 72 armadilhas de queda para a captura de pequenos mamíferos, as quais foram posicionadas em três áreas. As coletas foram realizadas em fases mensais, com cinco dias de duração, de dezembro de 2000 a setembro de 2002. Medidas externas (mm) como tamanho do corpo, braço, perna, cauda, orelha, vibrissas, comprimento e largura do pé e maior dedo foram mensuradas nas espécies com maior número de indivíduos adultos. As espécies mais abundantes foram os roedores Akodon toba, Calomys cf. callosus, Oecomys bicolor e Oryzomys nitidus. Os sexos foram analisados separadamente devido o dimorfismo sexual nas espécies. Estas medidas corporais foram comparadas através da análise de covariância multivariada (MANCOVA) entre as espécies. Uma Análise Discriminante foi feita para verificar quais variáveis morfológicas explicam as diferenças entre os grupos. A característica que melhor explicou as diferenças entre as espécies foi a cauda que se mostrou relativamente curta para espécies reconhecidamente terrestres (Akodon toba e Calomys cf. callosus) e relativamente longa (semelhante ao comprimento do corpo) para as espécies Oecomys bicolor e Oryzomys nitidus. A maior largura do pé e comprimento das vibrissas para O. bicolor, o maior comprimento do pé para O. nitidus, cauda e dedos mais longos para ambas as espécies, são medidas relacionadas provavelmente ao hábito semi-arbóreo e escansorial destas espécies, respectivamente. A abundância de todas as espécies foi maior ao longo da estação quente e início da estação fria, não havendo diferença significativa entre machos e fêmeas. Porém, houve diferença para jovens e adultos de A. toba e O. nitidus. Akodon toba apresentou maior número de jovens na estação quente enquanto O. nitidus apresentou na estação fria. Efeitos diretos da disponibilidade de recursos foram relacionados à atividade reprodutiva de machos e fêmeas e à presença de jovens e adultos nas populações. Callomys cf. callosus apresentou maior tamanho de ninhada (5,17) enquanto O. bicolor apresentou menor (2,33). Apenas Calomys cf. callosus apresentou dimorfismo sexual quanto ao comprimento do corpo e cauda, sendo machos maiores em tamanho. Isto indica a presença de um sistema de acasalamento promíscuo para a espécie. A análise dos testículos (medidas internas) em relação aos escrotos (medidas externas) não apresentou diferença para nenhuma das espécies, porém foram maiores quanto maior o tamanho corporal de determinada espécie.

Les processus de type “action-conséquence” (orienté vers un but) et stimulus-réponse sont deux composants importants du comportement. Le premier évalue le bénéfice d’une action pour choisir la meilleure parmi celles disponibles (sélection d’action) alors que le deuxième est responsable du comportement automatique, suscitant une réponse dès qu’un stimulus connu est présent. De telles habitudes sont généralement associées (et surtout opposées) aux actions orientées vers un but qui nécessitent un processus délibératif pour évaluer la meilleure option à prendre pour atteindre un objectif donné. En utilisant un modèle computationnel, nous avons étudié l’hypothèse classique de la formation et de l’expression des habitudes au niveau des ganglions de la base et nous avons formulé une nouvelle hypothèse quant aux rôles respectifs des ganglions de la base et du cortex. Inspiré par les travaux théoriques et expérimentaux de Leblois et al. (2006) et Guthrie et al. (2013), nous avons conçu un modèle computationnel des ganglions de la base, du thalamus et du cortex qui utilise des boucles distinctes (moteur, cognitif et associatif) ce qui nous a permis de poser l’hypothèse selon laquelle les ganglions de la base ne sont nécessaires que pour l’acquisition d’habitudes alors que l’expression de telles habitudes peut être faite par le cortex seul. En outre, ce modèle a permis de prédire l’existence d’un apprentissage latent dans les ganglions de la base lorsque leurs sorties (GPi) sont inhibées. En utilisant une tâche de bandit manchot à 2 choix, cette hypothèse a été expérimentalement testée et confirmée chez le singe; suggérant au final de rejeter l’idée classique selon laquelle l’automatisme est un trait subcortical. / Action-outcome and stimulus-response processes are two important components of behavior. The former evaluates the benefit of an action in order to choose the best action among those available (action selection) while the latter is responsible for automatic behavior, eliciting a response as soon as a known stimulus is present. Such habits are generally associated (and mostly opposed) to goal-directed actions that require a deliberative process to evaluate the best option to take in order to reach a given goal. Using a computational model, we investigated the classic hypothesis of habits formation and expression in the basal ganglia and proposed a new hypothesis concerning the respective role for both the basal ganglia and the cortex. Inspired by previous theoretical and experimental works (Leblois et al., 2006; Guthrie et al., 2013), we designed a computational model of the basal ganglia-thalamus-cortex that uses segregated loops (motor, cognitive and associative) and makes the hypothesis that basal ganglia are only necessary for the acquisition of habits while the expression of such habits can be mediated through the cortex. Furthermore, this model predicts the existence of covert learning within the basal ganglia ganglia when their output is inhibited. Using a two-armed bandit task, this hypothesis has been experimentally tested and confirmed in monkey. Finally, this works suggest to revise the classical idea that automatism is a subcortical feature.

L’habitude est un concept connu de nombreuses disciplines telles que la philosophie ou la psychologie. Si le droit ne fait pas figure d’exception, la fonction répressive du droit pénal confère à l’habitude un sens particulier en sanctionnant l’habitude pénale.Loin d’assimiler l’habitude pénale à l’habitude criminelle, la thèse en retient une conception purement juridique et objective, détachée de toute référence à la dangerosité du délinquant. L’étude, résolument technique, propose, à partir de cinq institutions (infraction d’habitude, circonstance aggravante d’habitude, récidive, réitération d’infractions et concours réel d’infractions) une notion unitaire de l’habitude pénale et une répression adaptée à la criminalité particulière du délinquant d’habitude. L’habitude est alors définie comme un ensemble de comportements répétés unis par un lien juridique consistant principalement en un lien d’analogie et un lien temporel. Cette notion a permis de déduire une répression de l’habitude adaptée à son particularisme. Ainsi, son régime juridique est influencé par sa double structure, matériellement plurale et juridiquement unitaire, de même que sa sanction est influencée par le lien unissant les comportements.En puisant des exemples de comparaison dans les législations pénales étrangères et au sein du droit privé français, l’étude permet également de mettre en évidence les atouts et les faiblesses du droit pénal français dans l’appréhension de l’habitude pénale. / Habit is a concept known by many disciplines such as philosophy or psychology. If Law is not an exception, the repressive function of criminal Law gives to the habit a specific sense by punishing penal habits.Far from assimilating penal habit and criminal habit, the thesis holds a purely legal and objective conception, disconnected from references to the offender’s dangerosity. The study, resolutely technical, suggests, from five legal institutions (habitual offence, habit as an aggravating circumstance, subsequent offence, repetition of offences and combination of offences) a unitary notion of the habit in criminal Law and a better adapted repression to the habitual offender’s specific criminality.Penal habit is defined as repeated behaviours joined by a legal link, mainly analogical and temporal. This notion allows a repression of habit adapted to its specific characteristics. Thus, the legal repression is influenced by its double pattern, physically plural and legally unitary. In the same way, punishment is influenced by the link joining behaviours.Taking examples from comparing foreign criminal legislations as well as private French law, this study emphasizes assets and weaknesses of the criminal law approach of habit.

MPH / Department of Public Health / Background: Globally, cigarette smoking is causing preventable deaths in developing countries affecting especially the youth. Historically, cigarette smoking is known to be more common among adults but is also becoming common among students. Purpose: The study aimed to investigate factors contributing to cigarette smoking and its health consequences amongst students of the University of Venda in South Africa. Methodology: A quantitative approach using a descriptive cross- sectional design was adopted. Convenience sampling was used to randomly select 428 respondents. A self-reporting questionnaire with closed ended questions was administered to respondents between the ages of 17-40 years who suited the inclusion criteria. Permission to conduct the research was obtained from the Ethics Committee of the University of Venda. Data were analysed using SPSS version 23 and presented in the form of tables and charts. Pearson’s chi squares were used to test significant relationships between variables and smoking status. Results: A total of 407 students participated in the study. Of the 407, 208 (51%) of respondents were female students. The mean age of the study population was 24 years. Of these 407, 175(43%) reported being smokers 232 (57%) were nonsmokers. More smokers were observed among the male respondents and registered for first and second years. There was a significant relationship between age, gender, religion, school of affiliation, amount of pocket money and smoking status (P-value=0.05).The results showed that the majority of the respondents285 (70%) agreed to the belief that students smoked cigarettes due to availability of cigarettes at every corner of the campus, 281 (79%) peer influenced by friends 289 (71%) family members who smoke, and 313 (76.8%)increase social interaction. The majority of the students were knowledgeable about health consequences caused by smoking. Nonsmoking students were more knowledgeable about harmful effects of smoking as compared to smokers (P=0.00. Conclusion: The study concludes that students smokes cigarettes due to being a friend with someone who smokes, being in new a environment, stress, depression, observation of other students smoking, no signage prohibiting smoking and lack of knowledge regarding health / NRF

The thesis concerns factors that affect the intensity of MMORPG playing and the gaming addiction symptoms. In the theoretical part, I discuss approaches to the excessive and problematic gaming. I argue for the shift of perspective from gaming addiction disorder toward self-regulation, time perspective, activity theory and habitual regulation. Two inventory-based studies were conducted in order to empirically verify the effect of proposed variables on MMORPG usage. First, the significant role of Time Perspective (TP), measured by Zimbardo Time Perspective Inventory (ZTPI), has been confirmed. Second, the habitual regulation had been identified to significantly affect the usage. The habits related to usage were measured by the new psychometrical tool - Cues Sensitivity Scale (CSS). TP and habits influence the usage together - the effect of TP is partially mediated through Cues Sensitivity as well as through the players' deliberate regulation of playing time. All measured variables showed stability in time (measured after three years in subset of respondents). Data was analyzed with statistical methods, mainly with Partial-Least-Squares Path- Modelling (PLS-PM). The part of the data - respondents' strategies of playing time regulation - were analyzed qualitatively.

The polycystic ovary syndrome (PCOS) affects women or people with female reproductive organs negatively, by irregular periods, difficulties in getting pregnant, and excessive hair growth. The symptoms can be eased by taking on habits of regular physical exercise and a balanced diet. Taking on new habits is however a challenging task. This thesis aims at harnessing the affordances (if any) that the design of gamification in a mobile application for women with PCOS could bring. The theoretical lens of self-determination theory has been used to underpin the design of gamification elements that can engage the users of an app. After creating designs and implementations in the app, evaluations were made with 29 participants through surveys and interviews. The results from the user evaluations show that participants’ thoughts on features and elements differed and that they were interested in them being designed in different ways. Designing an app that allows the user flexibility was desirable, and even viewed as motivational. Another take is that one should be careful in designing elements in a health app that uses comparing elements of gamification, since it can generate negative feelings such as anxiety. In the future, it would be interesting to include more features in the app and let users test it for a longer time to see if that would have a significant impact on the user engagement, and if habits could form for a better well-being. / Polycystiskt ovarialsyndrom (PCOS) påverkar kvinnor eller människor med kvinnliga reproduktiva organ negativt, genom oregelbunden mens, svårigheter i att bli gravid, och ökad hårväxt. Symptomen kan lindras genom regelbunden fysisk aktivitet och en balanserad kost. Att skaffa nya vanor är en utmaning. Det här examensarbetet har i syfte att se vilka möjligheter (om några) som en design av spelifiering i en mobilapp för kvinnor med PCOS kan ge. Linsen av självbestämmande teorin har använts för att stödja designen av spelifiering element som kan engagera app användare. Utvärderingar gjordes med 29 deltagare i form av enkäter samt intervjuer efter att ha skapat designer samt gjort implementationer i appen. Resultaten, baserade på deltagar utvärderingarna, visar på att användarnas tankar kring funktioner och element skilde sig åt samt att de var intresserade i olika designer för dessa. Att designa en app som erbjuder användaren flexibilitet var önskvärt, och sågs även som motiverande. En annan insikt är att designa delar av en hälsoapp som använder sig av spelifiering element där man jämför sig med andra bör ske med omsorg, då det kan medföra användaren med negativa känslor såsom ångest. Vidare vore det intressant att inkludera fler funktioner i appen och låta användare testa den en längre period för att se om det skulle ha en signifikant påverkan på användarnas engagemang, samt om vanor kunde skapas för ett bättre välbefinnande.

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Prior evidence suggests that sensorimotor regions play a crucial role in habit formation. Yet, whether and how their global functional network properties might contribute to a more comprehensive characterization of habit formation still remains unclear. Capitalizing on advances in Elastic Net regression and predictive modeling, we examined whether learning-related functional connectivity alterations distributed across the whole brain could predict individual habit strength. Using the leave-one-subject-out cross-validation strategy, we found that the habit strength score of the novel unseen subjects could be successfully predicted. We further characterized the contribution of both, individual large-scale networks and individual brain regions by calculating their predictive weights. This highlighted the pivotal role of functional connectivity changes involving the sensorimotor network and the cingulo–opercular network in subject-specific habit strength prediction. These results contribute to the understanding the neural basis of human habit formation by demonstrating the importance of global functional network properties especially also for predicting the observable behavioral expression of habits.