La génération des fréquences somme (SFG), une technique spectroscopique spécifique aux interfaces, a été utilisée pour caractériser les changements de la structure macromoléculaire du surfactant cationique chlorure de dodécyltriméthylammonium (DTAC) à l’interface silice/eau dans une plage de pH variant entre 3 et 11. Les conditions expérimentales ont été choisies pour imiter les conditions les plus communes trouvées pendant les opérations de récupération assistée du pétrole. Particulièrement, la silice a été étudiée, car elle est un des composantes des surfaces minérales des réservoirs de grès, et l’adsorption du surfactant a été étudiée avec une force ionique pertinente pour les fluides de la fracturation hydraulique. Les spectres SFG ont présenté des pics détectables avec une amplitude croissante dans la région des étirements des groupes méthylène et méthyle lorsque le pH est diminué jusqu’à 3 ou augmenté jusqu’à 11, ce qui suggère des changements de la structure des agrégats de surfactant à l’interface silice/eau à une concentration de DTAC au-delà de la concentration micellaire critique. De plus, des changements dans l’intensité SFG ont été observés pour le spectre de l’eau quand la concentration de DTAC augmente de 0,2 à 50 mM dans les conditions acide, neutre et alcaline. À pH 3, près du point de charge zéro de la surface de silice, l’excès de charge positive en raison de l’adsorption du surfactant cationique crée un champ électrostatique qui oriente les molécules d’eau à l’interface. À pH 7 et 11, ce qui sont des valeurs au-dessus du point de charge zéro de la surface de silice, le champ électrostatique négatif à l’interface silice/eau diminue par un ordre de grandeur avec l’adsorption du surfactant comme résultat de la compensation de la charge négative à la surface par la charge positive du DTAC. Les résultats SFG ont été corrélés avec des mesures de l’angle de contact et de la tension interfaciale à pH 3, 7 et 11. / Sum Frequency Generation (SFG), an interface specific spectroscopic technique, was used to characterize the changes in the macromolecular structure of the cationic surfactant dodecyltrimethylammonium chloride (DTAC) at the silica/water interface at pH values ranging from 3 to 11. The experimental conditions were selected to mimic conditions common during enhanced oil recovery operations. In particular, silica was studied since it is one of the most abundant mineral components of sandstone reservoirs, and surfactant adsorption was studied at an ionic strength (100 mM NaCl) relevant to hydraulic fracturing fluids. SFG spectra showed detectable peaks with increasing amplitude in the methylene and methyl stretching region when the pH was lowered to 3 or increased to 11, suggesting changes in the surfactant aggregate structure at the silica/water interface at a DTAC concentration above the critical micelle concentration. In addition, changes in the SFG intensity were observed for the water spectrum when increasing the DTAC concentration from 0.2 to 50 mM under acidic, neutral or alkaline conditions. At pH 3, near the point of zero charge of the silica surface, the excess positive charge due to adsorption of the cationic surfactant creates an electrostatic field that orients water molecules at the interface. At pH 7 and 11, which are above the point of zero charge of the silica surface, the negative electrostatic field at the silica/water interface decreases in magnitude with surfactant adsorption due to compensation of the negative surface charge by the positively charged DTAC. The SFG results were correlated with contact angle and interfacial tension measurements at pH 3, 7 and 11.

Αντικείμενο της παρούσας διδακτορικής διατριβής αποτελεί η μελέτη και ανάπτυξη νέων μεθοδολογιών αυτόματης επεξεργασίας σεισμολογικών δεδομένων, µε σκοπό την επίλυση σημαντικών προβλημάτων που συναντώνται στα πεδία των επιστημών της σεισμολογίας και της γεωφυσικής όπως: 1) η ανίχνευση μικροσεισμικών γεγονότων από µία καταγραφή, µε άλλα λόγια ο διαχωρισμός της καταγραφής σε τμήματα που αποτελούνται από εδαφικό θόρυβο και σε τμήματα που περιέχουν την χρήσιμη πληροφορία (σεισμικά γεγονότα) για τους γεωεπιστήμονες και 2) η εκτίμηση των χρόνων άφιξης των διαμήκων (P-) καθώς και των εγκαρσίων (S-) σεισμικών φάσεων. Πιο αναλυτικά, η διατριβή είναι δομημένη ως εξής: Το πρώτο κεφάλαιο αποτελεί την εισαγωγή της διατριβής. Στο δεύτερο κεφάλαιο συγκεντρώνονται και κατηγοριοποιούνται όλες οι υπάρχουσες τεχνικές που έχουν αναπτυχθεί για την επίλυση του προβλήματος της αυτόματης ανίχνευσης σεισμικών γεγονότων καθώς και τον αυτόματο προσδιορισμό του χρόνου άφιξης των P και S σεισμικών φάσεων. Συγκεκριμένα γίνεται κατηγοριοποίηση αυτών σε τεχνικές που στηρίζονται στην ανάλυση και επεξεργασία των σεισμικών καταγραφών στα πεδία του χρόνου και της συχνότητας, στη χρήση νευρωνικών δικτύων, στην ανάλυση χρονικών σειρών και αυτοπαλινδρόμησης, στην ανάλυση της πόλωσης των κυμάτων, στις στατιστικές υψηλότερης τάξης, μεθόδους ασαφούς λογικής, κυματιδιακές μεθόδους κτλ. Στο τρίτο κεφάλαιο, αναπτύσσεται νέα τεχνική για την επίλυση του προβλήματος της αυτόματης ανίχνευσης σεισμικών γεγονότων από μία καταγραφή, η οποία βασίζεται σε μία μη αυστηρή διαδικασία ελέγχου υποθέσεων. Η προτεινόμενη τεχνική πραγματοποιείται σε δύο στάδια. Κατά το πρώτο στάδιο εκτιμώνται οι εμπειρικές συναρτήσεις πυκνότητας πιθανότητας που προκύπτουν τόσο από τον εδαφικό θόρυβο όσο και από τα υπόλοιπα που προέκυψαν από την λεύκανση αυτού. Κατά το δεύτερο στάδιο προτείνεται στατιστικό τεστ τύπου κατωφλίωσης για την αυτόματη ανίχνευση μικροσεισμικών γεγονότων. Η προτεινόμενη τεχνική εφαρμόζεται σε συνθετικά και πραγματικά δεδομένα και συγκρίνεται με τον γνωστό αλγόριθμο του λόγου βραχυπρόθεσμου προς μακροπρόθεσμο μέσο (STA/LTA). Στο τέταρτο κεφάλαιο παρουσιάζεται μέθοδος για την επίλυση του προβλήματος του αυτόματου προσδιορισμό του χρόνου άφιξης της P φάσης κάνοντας χρήση στατιστικών ανώτερης τάξης. Συγκεκριμένα, γίνεται χρήση των ποσοτήτων της λοξότητας, της κύρτωσης και μίας εκτίμησης της αντιεντροπίας ως γραμμικός συνδυασμός των παραπάνω. Επιπλέον παρουσιάζονται τα αποτελέσματα από την εφαρμογή της συγκεκριμένης τεχνικής σε συνθετικά αλλά και πραγματικά δεδομένα μικροσεισμικού δικτύου, κατάλληλα για χρήση στην παθητική σεισμική τομογραφία υψηλής ευκρίνειας. Τα αποτελέσματα αυτά συγκρίνονται με γνωστές ενεργειακές μεθόδους. Στο πέμπτο κεφάλαιο, αναπτύσσεται νέα τεχνική για την επίλυση του προβλήματος της αυτόματης εκτίμησης του χρόνου άφιξης της S φάσης. Η προτεινόμενη τεχνική βασίζεται στην στατιστική επεξεργασία συγκεκριμένης χαρακτηριστικής συνάρτησης, η οποία προκύπτει από τις ιδιότητες πόλωσης των σεισμικών κυμάτων που έχουν καταγραφεί. Επιπλέον, για να ελαττωθεί η εξάρτηση του προτεινόμενου αλγορίθμου από το χρησιμοποιούμενο παράθυρο, ακολουθείται μια πολυ-παραθυρική προσέγγιση του προβλήματος σε συνδυασμό με χρήση συναρτήσεων βαρών οι οποίες εκτιμώνται αυτόματα και βασίζονται στις μεταβολές της ενέργειας του σήματος κατά τη S άφιξη. Τέλος, παρουσιάζονται τα αποτελέσματα της εφαρμογής της μεθόδου σε πραγματικά δεδομένα καθώς και η αξιολόγησή τους σε περιβάλλον θορύβου. Στο έκτο κεφάλαιο, παρουσιάζονται τα αποτελέσματα της εφαρμογής των προτεινόμενων τεχνικών σε δεδομένα μικροσεισμικού δικτύου και συγκεκριμένα σε δεδομένα που προέκυψαν από πειράματα παθητικής σεισμικής τομογραφίας και τεχνητής υδραυλικής διάρρηξης που έλαβαν χώρα στην περιοχή Δέλβινο της ΝΔ Αλβανίας. Επιπλέον, γίνεται ανάλυση των αποτελεσμάτων βάσεις των δεικτών αβεβαιότητας που επέλεξαν οι αναλυτές στις εκτιμήσεις τους, καθώς και βάσει των λόγων σήματος θορύβου των καταγραφών. Στο έβδομο κεφάλαιο παρατίθενται τα συμπεράσματα της παρούσας διδακτορικής διατριβής, καθώς και πιθανές μελλοντικές προεκτάσεις. / The problems of seismic event detection and P- and S-phase arrival time estimation constitute important and vital tasks for the geoscientists. The solution of the aforementioned problems provides with important geophysical and seismological information, that can be used in a number of problems such as the structure of the earth’s interior, geotectonic settings, hypocentric and epicentric coordinates of an earthquake, the seismicity of an area and seismic hazard assessment. Traditionally, human experts have carried out this task. Nevertheless, during the last three decades due to the progress in computer technology, several methods have been developed for the automatic seismic event detection and P- and S- phase identification. After the introduction of the first chapter, in the second chapter the majority of the existing methods that have been developed and applied up to now, are gathered and categorized. These methods involve energy criteria, the seismic wave polarity assumption, artificial neural networks, higher order statistics, maximum likelihood methods, fuzzy logic methods etc. In the third chapter, a new thresholding type technique is proposed, tailored to fit real world situations where our knowledge on the statistical characteristics of the background noise process are unknown and a strict hypothesis testing framework can not be followed. In such cases the replacement of the unknown probability density function under the null hypothesis by its empirical counterpart, constitutes a possibility. In this work, a two stage procedure is proposed. The first one concerns the estimation of the empirical functions of the noise process itself as well as its whitened counterpart. In the second stage, using the above empirical functions, a thresholding scheme is proposed in order to solve the problem of the detection of seismic events in a non strict hypothesis testing framework. The performance of the proposed technique is confirmed by its application in a series of experiments both in synthetic and real seismic datasets. In the fourth chapter, the problem of automatic P-phase identification is solved using higher order statistics. The first- and second-order statistics (such as mean value, variance, autocorrelation, and power spectrum) are extensively used in signal processing to describe linear and Gaussian processes. In practice, many processes deviate from linearity and Gaussianity. Higher order statistics can be used for the study of such processes. The P-phase arrival time is estimated using these HOS parameters and additionally, an estimation of the negentropy defined as a linear combination of skewness and kurtosis. According to the implemented algorithm a moving window “slides” on the recorded signal, estimating skewness, kurtosis, and negentropy. Skewness can be considered as a measure of symmetry of the distribution, while kurtosis is a measure of heaviness of the tails, so they are suitable for detecting parts of the signal that do not follow the amplitude distribution of ambient noise. Seismic events have higher amplitudes in comparison to the seismic noise, and these higher values occupy the tails of the distribution (high degree of asymmetry of distribution). In the case of seismic events, skewness and kurtosis obtain high values, presenting maxima in the transition from ambient noise to the seismic events (P-arrival). The proposed algorithms are applied on synthetic as well as real seismic data and compared to well known energy based methods. Algorithms that deal with the automatic S-onset time identification problem, is a topic of ongoing research. Modern dense seismic networks used for earthquake location, seismic tomography investigations, source studies, early warning etc., demand accurate automatic S-wave picking. Most of the techniques that have been proposed up to now are mainly based on the polarization features of the seismic waves. In the fifth chapter, a new time domain method for the automatic determination of the S-phase arrival onsets is proposed and its implementation on local earthquake data is presented. Eigevalue analysis is taking place over small time intervals, and the maximum eigenvalue which is obtained on each step is retained for further processing. In this way a time series of maximum eigenvalues is formed, which serves as a characteristic function. A first S-phase arrival time estimation is obtained by applying the kurtosis criterion on the derived characteristic function. Furthermore, a multi-window approach combined with an energy-based weighting scheme is also applied, in order to reduce the algorithm’s dependence on the moving window’s length and provide a weighted S phase onset. Automatic picks are compared against manual reference picks and moreover the proposed technique is subjected to a noise robustness test. In the sixth chapter, the results of the implementation of the proposed techniques on microseismic data are presented. Specifically, the proposed methods are applied on two real sets of data. One dataset was been recorded during a Passive Seismic Tomography (PST) experiment, while the second one during the seismic monitoring of fracking operations. Both experiments took place in a hydrocarbon field in Delvina, SW Albania. These results are also analyzed, based on the arrival times and their uncertainty as they were evaluated by human analysts as well as the corresponding signal to noise ratio of the seismic records. Finally, the seventh chapter concludes this work and possible future extensions are discussed.

[pt] Um elevado número de reservatórios de hidrocarbonetos é naturalmente fraturado. Quando sujeitos a estimulação hidráulica, as fraturas naturais podem influenciar a propagação da fratura hidráulica, que pode tomar uma forma geométrica complexa, criando redes de fraturas no reservatório. De forma a melhor entender e simular tais fenômenos, um elemento baseado no Método dos Elementos Finitos Estendidos (XFEM) é proposto. A formulação do elemento inclui interseção e cruzamento entre fraturas, atrito entre as faces das fraturas, comportamento acoplado entre deslocamentos, poro-pressões e pressões do fluido da fratura, absorção de fluído da fratura para o meio poroso (leak-off) e a eventual perda de pressão nas faces da fratura (filter cake). Os fundamentos teóricos e os aspectos relevantes da implementação são apresentados. Um conjunto de análises é realizado de forma a validar em separado as diferentes funcionalidades do elemento implementado. Finalmente, os resultados de quatro aplicações práticas são analisados e discutidos: dois conjuntos de ensaios de laboratório de interseção de fratura, propagação de fratura hidráulica num modelo sintético multi-fraturado e percolação na fundação fraturada de uma barragem. Conclui-se que o código implementado fornece previsões muito boas do comportamento acoplado do meio fraturado e tem capacidade de simular corretamente a interação entre fraturas hidráulicas e naturais. Pode também verificar-se que o comportamento hidráulico dos modelos e a propagação e interseção de fraturas são muito influenciados por parâmetros tais como o diferencial de tensões in-situ, ângulo entre fraturas, a abertura hidráulica das fraturas e a condutividade transversal das faces da fratura. / [en] A large number of hydrocarbon reservoirs are naturally fractured. When subjected to hydraulic fracturing treatments, the natural fractures may influence the propagation of the hydraulic fracture, which can grow in a complicated manner creating complex fracture networks in the reservoir. In order to better understand and simulate such phenomena an element based on the eXtended Finite Element Method is proposed. The element formulation comprises fracture intersection and crossing, fracture frictional behaviour, fully coupled behaviour between displacements, pore and fracture fluid pressure, leak-off from the fracture to the surrounding medium and the eventual loss of pressure due to filter cake. The theoretical background and implementation aspects are presented. A set of analyses is performed in order to validate different features of the implemented element. Finally, the results of four practical applications are analysed and discussed: two laboratory hydraulic fracture tests, hydraulic fracture propagation in a multifractured synthetic model and percolation through a dam fractured foundation. It is concluded that the implemented code provides very good predictions of the coupled fluid-rock fracture behaviour and is capable of correctly simulating the interaction between hydraulic and natural fractures. Moreover, it is shown that the hydraulic behaviour of the models and the intersection between fractures are very sensible to parameters such as differential in-situ stresses, angle between fractures, initial hydraulic aperture and fracture face transversal conductivity.

[pt] Valkó e Oligney propuseram um modelo que estima a evolução da fratura utilizando uma interpretação direta da curva de pressão de fundo medida durante uma operação de fracpack. Os únicos dados de entrada necessários para a aplicação do modelo são os registros geralmente disponíveis durante e após a operação. Considerando uma fratura de geometria radial e utilizando equações simples de fluxo e de geomecânica, o modelo obtém raios de empacotamento a partir da inclinação positiva da curva de pressão de fundo nos períodos de tip screenout. Nesta dissertação o modelo de Valkó e Oligney é aprimorado com a inclusão e o ajuste das equações de estado para o crescimento da fratura e para o processo de filtração, respectivamente. O modelo é também estendido para outras geometrias bidimensionais de fratura, PKN e KGD. A aplicação do modelo foi realizada utilizando os registros de pressão de oito operações de fracpack. Os resultados obtidos são a curva de propagação da fratura, o crescimento da abertura, a eficiência ao longo do tempo e a distribuição final do agente de sustentação na fratura. Para a validação desses resultados foram utilizados dois simuladores comerciais com modelos tridimensionais. Os estudos de caso indicaram que os ajustes realizados aproximaram os resultados do modelo aos obtidos nos simuladores comerciais. Além disso, a aplicação dos modelos desenvolvidos para cada geometria de fratura e a comparação com os resultados dos simuladores comerciais, permitiu confirmar a tendência esperada que, durante uma operação de fracpack, a geometria da fratura se aproxima da radial. / [en] Valkó and Oligney developed a model to estimate fracture evolution using a direct interpretation of the measured bottom hole pressure curve during a fracpack operation. The only input data needed to use the model are the usual records of the job, available during and after the operation. Considering radial fracture geometry and using simplified equations of flow and geomechanics, the model estimates a packing radius of the fracture using the slope of the increasing bottom hole pressure curve during the tip screenout period. In this work, Valkó and Oligney method is enhanced with the inclusion of state equations for the fracture growth and for the leakoff process in order to improve the model, but still maintaining minimum input data. The method is also extended to other two-dimensional fracture geometries, PKN and KGD. To apply the enhanced method, eight fracpack operation data were used. The results obtained are fracture propagation, width growth and fluid efficiency in time as well as the final proppant distribution in the fracture. To validate these results, this work used two commercial simulators with three-dimensional models. The case studies show that the modifications done to Valkó and Oligney method approximate the two-dimensional model results to the ones obtained using the commercial simulators with threedimensional models. Furthermore, the comparison between the application of the model for each fracture geometry and the commercial simulators results confirmed the expected tendency for the fracture geometry during a fracpack operation, which is a radial fracture.

La formation des gisements métallogéniques en général et uranifères en particulier, dans les bassins paléoprotérozoïques, dépend de la migration des fluides riches en divers éléments (U, Cu, Fe, etc.). L’objet de cette thèse a été de définir le contexte tectonique, sédimentologique et diagénétique associées aux gisements bitume--‐uranium du bassin de Franceville. L’étude tectonique réalisée met en évidence des failles de transfert N180--‐170, héritées de la tectonique archéenne et des failles normales longitudinales N110--‐120. Ces deux familles de failles compartimentent le bassin de Franceville en plusieurs sous--‐bassins de subsidence variable. Les failles longitudinales N110--‐120° contrôlent la mise en place d’anticlinaux de mur et des synclinaux de toit synsédimentaires (i.e. discordances progressives). Les gisements d’uranium du bassin de Franceville, se localisent au niveau des anticlinaux de mur des failles normales. L’étude sédimentologique du bassin caractérise la distribution spatiale des paléoenvironnements de dépôt. Quatre grands environnements de dépôts sont respectivement mis en évidence : fluviatile (formation FA inferieur), deltaïque (formation FA moyen), tidal (formation FA Supérieur) et marin profond (formation FB). La distribution des facies sédimentaires à la transition FA--‐FB est responsable de la mise en place de barrières de perméabilité. Les barrières de perméabilité sont responsables de l’augmentation de la pression fluide, qui favorise la mise en place des structures de surpression fluide (dykes, stylolites, veines de quartz), au voisinage des anticlinaux de mur contrôlés par les failles normales. Les différences de pression dans le bassin favorisent la migration des fluides uranifères et des hydrocarbures, des zones profondes du bassin vers les anticlinaux de mur. Les structures de fracturation hydraulique vont contrôler la mise en place des bitumes et des minéralisations d’uranium associées. / Metallogenic deposits within paleproterozoic basins depend on generation and migration of fluids. The aim of this study is to provide a better understanding of tectonic, sedimentological and diagenetic setting of the uranium deposits in the Franceville basin and to characterize hydraulic fracturing impact on fluid migration processes in sandstone reservoirs.Tectonic study define the N180-170° transfer faults, associated with Archean tectonic and the N110-120° longitudinal normal faults. These two fault directions split the Franceville basin into small sub-basins. The longitudinal normal faults are associated with footwall anticlines and hanging wall synclines. The uranium deposits of Franceville basin are located in footwall anticlines of longitudinal normal faults.Sedimentological analysis allows to describe four depositional environments: Fluvial (lower FA), deltaic (middle FA), tidal (upper FA), and open marine environments (FB). Facies distribution in the FA-FB transition promotes the establishment of permeability barriers. These latter are responsible of the increase in fluid pressure and of the formation of fluid pressure structures (dykes, stylolites, quartz veins), in footwall anticlines of longitudinal normal faults. Increase in fluid pressure allows the migration of uranium-fluids, and hydrocarbon from the deep basin to the footwall anticline. Hydraulic fracturing processes lead the precipitation of uranium mineralization, associated with bitumen, in microfractures.

Submitted by Stephanie Blattler (stblattler@gmail.com) on 2018-03-12T18:45:47Z No. of bitstreams: 1 Mestrado FGV - Dissertação - Stephanie Blattler - Versão Final - 12.03.2018.pdf: 772793 bytes, checksum: 107759c95799b83798ef3e00303c13aa (MD5) / Approved for entry into archive by Diego Andrade (diego.andrade@fgv.br) on 2018-03-13T16:57:34Z (GMT) No. of bitstreams: 1 Mestrado FGV - Dissertação - Stephanie Blattler - Versão Final - 12.03.2018.pdf: 772793 bytes, checksum: 107759c95799b83798ef3e00303c13aa (MD5) / Made available in DSpace on 2018-03-16T16:55:58Z (GMT). No. of bitstreams: 1 Mestrado FGV - Dissertação - Stephanie Blattler - Versão Final - 12.03.2018.pdf: 772793 bytes, checksum: 107759c95799b83798ef3e00303c13aa (MD5) Previous issue date: 2018-02-06 / In Brazil, the debate regarding the exploration and production of shale gas became relevant with the 12th Bid Round promoted by the National Oil, Natural Gas and Biofuels Agency (ANP), which offered areas with great potential of such unconventional hydrocarbon. The country is listed as the tenth with greater shale gas potential in the world. However, due to the international controversy involving this energy source, mainly by virtue of its potential environmental impacts and damages, the matter was brought to the courts and is subject to legislative initiatives, so that the production of such hydrocarbon in Brazil has not started yet. Therefore, the present essay aims to clarify how the exploration and production of shale gas takes place and what would be its potential harmful effects to the environment, demonstrating that there are diverging scientific opinions over the most relevant of such effects. The description of the existing regulatory instruments in Brazil, such as ANP Resolution No. 21/2014, is also provided herein, as well as the description of the current legal proceedings and bills over the matter. Following, this essay also describes how the shale gas matter was solved in four states/countries, as to verify if there are any valuable lessons for Brazil. Based on the scientific uncertainty over the potential environmental damages and impacts, the precautionary rule is herein analyzed, aiming to understand how precaution may be applied to shale gas and to other cases under similar scientific uncertainty. Initially, the doctrine of absolute precaution is presented, followed by the main critics to precaution. Finally, the main conclusion is that the path of interpretation for the shale gas case and for other cases with similar scientific uncertainty is the use of the precautionary rule modulated by proportionality, so that its application does not reflect an immediate prohibition, but the management of uncertainties through regulation. / No Brasil, a discussão a respeito da exploração e produção de gás de folhelho, conhecido de forma equivocada como “gás de xisto”, ganhou expressividade com a 12ª Rodada de Licitações promovida pela Agência Nacional do Petróleo, Gás Natural e Biocombustíveis (ANP), que licitou áreas com grande potencial exploratório para esse hidrocarboneto não convencional. O país apresenta o décimo maior potencial de gás de folhelho do mundo, porém, em razão da polêmica internacional que envolve essa fonte energética, principalmente em função de seus potenciais impactos e danos ambientais, a questão permanece judicializada e objeto de iniciativas legislativas, de forma que a produção desse hidrocarboneto no Brasil ainda não foi iniciada. Nesse âmbito, o presente trabalho visa esclarecer como se dá a exploração e produção do gás de folhelho e quais seriam seus potenciais efeitos nocivos ao meio ambiente, demonstrando a divergência existente na comunidade científica sobre os mais relevantes desses potenciais efeitos. O trabalho também traz a descrição dos instrumentos regulatórios já existentes sobre o gás de folhelho no Brasil, como a Resolução ANP nº 21/2014, bem como dos processos judiciais e projetos de leis existentes sobre a questão. Em seguida, o presente trabalho também descreve como a questão do shale gas foi decidida em quatro estados/países, para verificar se podem ser extraídas lições para o Brasil. Com base na incerteza científica constatada sobre os potenciais danos e impactos ambientais, o postulado da precaução é aqui analisado, visando compreender como ele pode ser aplicado ao caso do gás de folhelho e a outros casos de incerteza científica análoga. Inicialmente, é apresentada a doutrina da precaução absoluta, para posteriormente introduzir as principais críticas ao postulado. Por fim, conclui-se que o caminho para a interpretação do caso do gás de folhelho e de outros casos em que recai incerteza científica análoga é a utilização do postulado da precaução modulado pela proporcionalidade, de modo que sua aplicação não reflita uma proibição imediata, mas sim o gerenciamento das incertezas envolvidas por meio da regulação.

Submitted by PEDRO ROGERIO CLETO null (pedro.constant@gmail.com) on 2016-06-28T20:02:04Z No. of bitstreams: 1 Dissertacao_PedroCleto_VF.pdf: 6736443 bytes, checksum: adef1b42d29662c6340d24f74ffa54ec (MD5) / Approved for entry into archive by Ana Paula Grisoto (grisotoana@reitoria.unesp.br) on 2016-06-30T17:45:25Z (GMT) No. of bitstreams: 1 cleto_pr_me_bauru.pdf: 6736443 bytes, checksum: adef1b42d29662c6340d24f74ffa54ec (MD5) / Made available in DSpace on 2016-06-30T17:45:25Z (GMT). No. of bitstreams: 1 cleto_pr_me_bauru.pdf: 6736443 bytes, checksum: adef1b42d29662c6340d24f74ffa54ec (MD5) Previous issue date: 2016-05-09 / Coordenação de Aperfeiçoamento de Pessoal de Nível Superior (CAPES) / A técnica de fraturamento hidráulico é amplamente utilizada na indústria petrolífera para aumentar a permeabilidade da rocha-reservatório numa região próxima ao poço e permitir a extração, e consequente produção, de hidrocarbonetos armazenados em seus poros. Primeiramente a rocha é perfurada criando-se um poço e então injeta-se fluido a uma pressão suficientemente alta para fraturar a rocha. A injeção contínua de fluido permite que as fraturas se propaguem pelo reservatório, formando assim canais de alta permeabilidade. A modelagem e simulação computacional de fraturamento hidráulico são complexas em função da física envolvida no processo. O presente trabalho objetiva o estudo da formação e propagação de fraturas induzidas hidraulicamente em meios rochosos de baixa permeabilidade e também tem o propósito de verificar se a metodologia adotada é capaz de reproduzir características apresentadas num processo de fraturamento hidráulico, como a pressão necessária para causar a ruptura da rocha. Para tal, apresenta-se a técnica de fragmentação da malha utilizando elementos finitos de elevada razão de aspecto (ou elementos de interface) para representar a fratura, aos quais são atribuídas relações constitutivas baseadas na mecânica do dano. Além disso, os elementos de interface também possuem um acoplamento hidromecânico capaz de representar o canal de alta permeabilidade devido à ocorrência da fratura. Os resultados obtidos mostraram que os elementos de interface associados à técnica de fragmentação da malha foram capazes de representar tanto a formação quanto a propagação das fraturas induzidas hidraulicamente. Os resultados também mostraram que as curvas de pressão obtidas corresponderam àquelas idealizadas teoricamente. / The hydraulic fracturing technique is widely used to increase the permeability of reservoirs in the vicinity of the well and to allow the extraction and subsequent production of hydrocarbons trapped in its pores. Firstly, the rock is drilled, creating a well and then a fluid is injected at a sufficiently high pressure to fracture the rock. The continuous fluid injection allows the fractures to propagate through the reservoir, thereby forming some high permeability paths. The computer modeling and simulation of hydraulic fracturing are complex due to the physics involved in the process. This work aims to study the formation and propagation of hydraulically induced fractures in rocky media with low permeability and also aims to verify if the adopted methodology is able to reproduce the characteristics presented in a hydraulic fracturing process, as for instance, the required pressure to cause the breakdown of the rock. For this purpose, it is presented the mesh fragmentation technique using finite elements with a high aspect ratio (or interface elements) to represent the fracture, which are assigned constitutive relations based on damage mechanics. Besides, the interface elements also have a hydromechanical coupling which is able to represent the high permeability path due to the fracture. The results showed that the interface elements associated with the mesh fragmentation technique were able to represent both the formation and the propagation of hydraulically induced fractures. The results also showed that the obtained pressure curves corresponded to those theoretically idealized.

Durante a perfuração de poços de petróleo, a determinação do perfil de temperaturas no poço é importante para tomada de decisões relativas ao processo de cimentação, para a seleção de revestimento do poço e equipamentos e, sobretudo, na identificação de zonas de influxo e perda de circulação. Neste trabalho é proposto um modelo matemático da transferência de calor em regime transitório do escoamento de fluido de perfuração em poços fraturados com perda de circulação. O poço é representado de maneira simplificada através de um cilindro anular concêntrico, cuja parede externa (interface poço-formação) apresenta uma ou mais fraturas discretas. Para a obtenção do modelo térmico é realizado um balanço de energia com foco nas trocas de calor entre a coluna de perfuração, região anular e formação rochosa. A característica principal do modelo proposto é a possibilidade de detecção da posição e número de fraturas a partir do perfil do gradiente térmico da região anular ao longo poço. Para tanto, com o código numérico, obtido via método dos volumes finitos, investiga-se a influência de parâmetros: da fratura (profundidade relativa, perda de circulação, número e distância entre fraturas), físicos (tempo de circulação) e do regime de escoamento (número de Reynolds e viscosidade dos fluidos de perfuração). As variáveis-resposta principais analisadas são a temperatura da região anular e o gradiente térmico. Como variáveis-resposta secundárias são utilizadas as evoluções térmicas da temperatura no fundo do poço e na saída da região anular. É constatado que o aumento da profundidade relativa ou número de fraturas diminui a temperatura do fundo do poço, sem causar variação significativa na temperatura de saída do anular. Para a variação da perda de circulação, o efeito na temperatura do fundo do poço é similar ao da variação do aumento da profundidade relativa da fratura, no entanto são observadas diferenças na temperatura de saída. Além disso, é verificado que, conforme se aumenta o número de fraturas distribuídas ao longo da profundidade do poço, a temperatura do poço tende ao caso de poço não fraturado. De maneira similar é evidenciada a tendência de que a diminuição na distância entre fraturas se aproxima dos resultados para um poço com uma única fratura. Finalmente, o aumento da perda de circulação facilita a detecção de fraturas devido a respectiva mudança na descontinuidade do perfil do gradiente térmico da região anular. / During oil drilling operations, the wellbore temperature profile is used when selecting well casing materials, making cementation related decisions, and, most importantly, to identify loss zones. In this work, a transient heat transfer mathematical model for a fractured wellbore is proposed. The well has its geometry simplified to a concentric annular cylinder which has one or more discrete fracture in its external wall (wellformation interface). In order to obtain the thermal model an energy balance is used, focusing the heat transfer between the pipe, the annular region and the formation. The key characteristic of the model is the fracture detection through thermal gradient graphical analysis. The thermal gradient is an output of the solution of the discretized energy equation in the domains, obtained through the finite volume method. The following parameters are investigated: fracture depth, fracture number, fracture interference, loss circulation, circulation time, Reynolds number and drilling fluid viscosity. The analysis is done through the analysis of the annular region temperature profile and its gradient, along with the thermal evolution of both the bottomhole and outlet temperatures. It is verified that increasing the fracture relative depth or number decreases the bottomhole temperature, while having no significant impact in the outlet temperature. The same bottomhole temperature effect is noted when increasing loss rate, however outlet temperature changes are observed. In a similar way, when decreasing the distance between fractures, the temperature profile in the annular region trends to a wellbore with a single fracture. Finally, increasing loss rate favors fracture detection, since the discontinuity in the annular region thermal gradient profile is intensified.

Durante a perfuração de poços de petróleo, a determinação do perfil de temperaturas no poço é importante para tomada de decisões relativas ao processo de cimentação, para a seleção de revestimento do poço e equipamentos e, sobretudo, na identificação de zonas de influxo e perda de circulação. Neste trabalho é proposto um modelo matemático da transferência de calor em regime transitório do escoamento de fluido de perfuração em poços fraturados com perda de circulação. O poço é representado de maneira simplificada através de um cilindro anular concêntrico, cuja parede externa (interface poço-formação) apresenta uma ou mais fraturas discretas. Para a obtenção do modelo térmico é realizado um balanço de energia com foco nas trocas de calor entre a coluna de perfuração, região anular e formação rochosa. A característica principal do modelo proposto é a possibilidade de detecção da posição e número de fraturas a partir do perfil do gradiente térmico da região anular ao longo poço. Para tanto, com o código numérico, obtido via método dos volumes finitos, investiga-se a influência de parâmetros: da fratura (profundidade relativa, perda de circulação, número e distância entre fraturas), físicos (tempo de circulação) e do regime de escoamento (número de Reynolds e viscosidade dos fluidos de perfuração). As variáveis-resposta principais analisadas são a temperatura da região anular e o gradiente térmico. Como variáveis-resposta secundárias são utilizadas as evoluções térmicas da temperatura no fundo do poço e na saída da região anular. É constatado que o aumento da profundidade relativa ou número de fraturas diminui a temperatura do fundo do poço, sem causar variação significativa na temperatura de saída do anular. Para a variação da perda de circulação, o efeito na temperatura do fundo do poço é similar ao da variação do aumento da profundidade relativa da fratura, no entanto são observadas diferenças na temperatura de saída. Além disso, é verificado que, conforme se aumenta o número de fraturas distribuídas ao longo da profundidade do poço, a temperatura do poço tende ao caso de poço não fraturado. De maneira similar é evidenciada a tendência de que a diminuição na distância entre fraturas se aproxima dos resultados para um poço com uma única fratura. Finalmente, o aumento da perda de circulação facilita a detecção de fraturas devido a respectiva mudança na descontinuidade do perfil do gradiente térmico da região anular. / During oil drilling operations, the wellbore temperature profile is used when selecting well casing materials, making cementation related decisions, and, most importantly, to identify loss zones. In this work, a transient heat transfer mathematical model for a fractured wellbore is proposed. The well has its geometry simplified to a concentric annular cylinder which has one or more discrete fracture in its external wall (wellformation interface). In order to obtain the thermal model an energy balance is used, focusing the heat transfer between the pipe, the annular region and the formation. The key characteristic of the model is the fracture detection through thermal gradient graphical analysis. The thermal gradient is an output of the solution of the discretized energy equation in the domains, obtained through the finite volume method. The following parameters are investigated: fracture depth, fracture number, fracture interference, loss circulation, circulation time, Reynolds number and drilling fluid viscosity. The analysis is done through the analysis of the annular region temperature profile and its gradient, along with the thermal evolution of both the bottomhole and outlet temperatures. It is verified that increasing the fracture relative depth or number decreases the bottomhole temperature, while having no significant impact in the outlet temperature. The same bottomhole temperature effect is noted when increasing loss rate, however outlet temperature changes are observed. In a similar way, when decreasing the distance between fractures, the temperature profile in the annular region trends to a wellbore with a single fracture. Finally, increasing loss rate favors fracture detection, since the discontinuity in the annular region thermal gradient profile is intensified.

L’analyse de la controverse sur le gaz de schiste en France et au Québec à un niveauintermédiaire (méso) permet de souligner les processus de construction et contestation sociale etpolitique des différents cadrages soutenus par les réseaux d’acteurs en concurrence. Lesdynamiques d’intéressement à l’intérieur et à l’extérieur de l’action publique illustrent lesmultiples scènes et forums dans lesquels se déploie la controverse. L’analyse de la construction dece problème public et ses diverses redéfinitions démontre le rôle central du cadrage politique descontroverses. Les solutions retenues définissent tout autant qu’elles tentent de réduire le risquerelatif à cette nouvelle industrie gazière (face à un risque cadré comme technologique en France,on observe un cadrage sur l’acceptabilité sociale au Québec). Il s’agit alors d’insisterparticulièrement sur la dimension procédurale de problématisation des enjeux au regard du recoursà la participation publique et à l’expertise scientifique. Les multiples acteurs de cette controversesont interrogés : les participants à la mobilisation sociale mais aussi les acteurs de l’industrie et desstructures politiques et administratives, afin de dresser la cartographie de leur position mais ausside leurs discours depuis les prémices de cette nouvelle activité industrielle d’exploration du gaz deschiste (2008) jusqu’aux derniers rebondissements politiques (2015). Cette recherche s’appuie surun corpus d’entretiens qualitatifs (40) mais aussi d’articles de presse écrite (2 400) ainsi que surl’analyse qualitative et quantitative des divers rapports et commissions de travail sur le gaz deschiste. / The analysis of the shale gas controversy in France and Quebec at an intermediate (meso)level stresses the social and political construction and dispute processes of the various framingssupported by contesting actors’ networks. “Interestment” dynamics both inside and outside publicpolicies show the multiple scenes and forums in which the controversy unfold. The analysis ofhow this public problem is built and its various redefinitions shows the core role of politicalframing of controversies. The solutions define as well as they reduce the risk related to this newindustry (a technological risk in France and a frame on social acceptability in Quebec). It is thenimportant to stress the procedural dimension of problematizing the stakes regarding publicparticipation and scientific expertise. This study questions the various actors of the controversy,those of social mobilization, the industry and the political and administrative structures, to mapboth their position and their discourses since the beginnings of the new industrial activity ofexploring for shale gas (2008) to the latest political developments (2015). This study is based on acorpus of qualitative interviews (40), press articles (2 400) and a qualitative and quantitativeanalysis of the various reports and committees on shale gas.