Cette thèse fait référence au bruit de choc généré par des jets sousdétendus simple ou en configuration co-axial. Le bruit de choc est généré par l'interaction entre les structures turbulentes de la couche de cisaillement et le réseaux de cellules de choc développé dans le cône potentiel du jet. Afin d'étudier le bruit choc, simulations à grandes échelles adaptés pour l'aéro-acoustique sont effectué avec des schémas d'ordre élevé qui permet une approche nondissipative et non-dispersive. Les résultats sont analysés et comparés avec des résultats expérimentaux. Notamment, une filtrage hydrodynamique et acoustique est réalisé dans le champ proche pour analyser les modes azimutaux acoustiques et hydrodynamiques. En outre, un analyse basé sur la transformé en ondelettes est mis en oeuvre pour identifier les caractéristiques acoustiques et hydrodynamiques importants des jets supersoniques. / This thesis deals with the shock-cell noise generated by under-expanded supersonic jets in single- and dualstream configurations. Shock-cell noise is generated by the interaction between the turbulent structures of the shear-layer and the shock-cell system developed in the potential core of the jet. In order to study shock-cell noise, large eddy simulations adapted to aeroacoustics are carried out using high-order compact schemes that allow for a non-dissipative nondispersive approach. The results are analyzed and compared to experimental results. In particular, an acoustic-hydrodynamic filtering is carried out in the near field in order to analyze the acoustic and hydrodynamic azimuthal modes. Moreover, a wavelet-based analysis is implemented in order to identify the relevant acoustic and hydrodynamic features of the supersonic jets.

Dans ce travail, on s'intéresse aux méthodes numériques d'ordre élevé pour des écoulements instationnaires autour de géométries complexes. On commence par analyser l'approche hybride pour la méthode industrielle des Volumes Finis à l'ordre faible. Cela consiste à calculer en même temps sur des maillages structurés et non structurés avec des schémas numériques dédiés. Les maillages structurés et non structurés sont ensuite couplés par un raccord non conforme. Ce dernier est analysé en détails avec une attention particulière pour des écoulements instationnaires. On montre qu'un traitement dédié à l'interface empêche la réflexion d'ondes parasites. De plus, l'approche hybride est validée sur plusieurs cas académiques à la fois pour les flux convectifs et pour les flux diffusifs. L'extension de cette approche hybride à l'ordre élevé est limitée par l'efficacité des schémas non structurés d'ordre élevé en terme de temps de calcul. C'est pourquoi une nouvelle approche est explorée : la méthode des différences spectrales. Un nouveau cadre est spécialement développé pour réaliser l'analyse spectrale des méthodes spectrales discontinues. La méthode des différences spectrales semble être une alternative viable en terme de temps de calcul et de nombre de points par longueur d'onde nécessaires à une application donnée pour capturer la physique de l'écoulement. / This work deals with high-order numerical methods for unsteady flows around complex geometries. In order to cope with the low-order industrial Finite Volume Method, the proposed technique consists in computing on structured and unstructured zones with their associated schemes: this is called a hybrid approach. Structured and unstructured meshes are then coupled by a nonconforming grid interface. The latter is analyzed in details with special focus on unsteady flows. It is shown that a dedicated treatment at the interface avoids the reflection of spurious waves. Moreover, this hybrid approach is validated on several academic test cases for both convective and diffusive fluxes. The extension of this hybrid approach to high-order schemes is limited by the efficiency of unstructured high-order schemes in terms of computational time. This is why a new approach is explored: The Spectral Difference Method. A new framework is especially developed to perform the spectral analysis of Spectral Discontinuous Methods. The Spectral Difference Method seems to be a viable alternative in terms of computational time and number of points per wavelength needed for a given application to capture the flow physics.

Em diversos escoamentos sobre superfícies há a presença de protuberâncias, como por exemplo rebites, parafusos e juntas. Estas protuberâncias podem influenciar a camada limite, acelerando a transição do escoamento do estado laminar para o estado turbulento. Em alguns casos isto pode ser indesejável, já que o escoamento turbulento implica necessariamente em uma força de atrito maior do que aquela referente ao escoamento laminar. Existem alguns aspectos neste tipo de escoamento que ainda não estão bem compreendidos. O objetivo deste trabalho é estudar a influência de uma rugosidade isolada no escoamento sobre uma superfície. Este estudo contribui para se entender o que ocorre em casos de maior complexidade. O estudo é de natureza computacional, em que se utiliza simulação numérica direta das equações de Navier-Stokes. A técnica de fronteiras imersas é utilizada para representar a rugosidade no escoamento sobre a superfície. O código numérico é verificado por meio do método de soluções manufaturadas. Comparações entre resultados experimentais, da teoria de estabilidade linear e numéricos também são utilizados para a validação do código. Resultados obtidos com diferentes alturas de rugosidade e variações no gradiente de pressão permitiram analisar a influência de elemento rugoso tridimensional em escoamentos de camada limite. / The presence of protuberances on surfaces, for example, rivets, screws and gaskets, can influence the boundary layer by accelerating the transition from laminar flow to turbulent flow. In some cases this may be undesirable, since the turbulent flow involves frictional forces greater than the ones at the laminar regime. There are some aspects of the flow in the boundary layer perturbed by a single roughness element that are not well understood. The aim of this work is to study the influence of an isolated roughness on the boundary layer. This study is a step towards to the understanding of what can happen in more complex cases. The nature of this study is computational, therefore a Direct Numerical Simulation code is used. The immersed boundary method is used to represent the roughness in the flow on the surface. The numerical code is verified via theMethod ofManufactured Solutions. Comparisons between experimental data, Linear Stability Theory and numerical results are also used for the validation of the code. Results obtained with different roughness heights and variations in the pressure gradient allowed the analysis of the influence of a three-dimensional roughness element in boundary layer flows.

Orientador: Hugo Luis Fragnito / Dissertação (mestrado) - Universidade Estadual de Campinas, Instituto de Física Gleb Wataghin / Made available in DSpace on 2018-08-19T18:29:41Z (GMT). No. of bitstreams: 1 CastanedaTutestar_JuanAndres_M.pdf: 6184459 bytes, checksum: 92c32f647e9f3cbb607992b021c7924d (MD5) Previous issue date: 2012 / Resumo: Estudamos a interação entre laser e ruído em fibras ópticas, sua dependência com dispersão cromática e sua aplicação para caracterizar flutuações dos parâmetros de dispersao ao longo da fibra. A interacao é governada pela polarização não-linear de terceira ordem e, nesta tese, consideramos especificamente o processo de mistura de quatro ondas ou FMW (de Four-Wave Mixing) descrito por termos de ordem cúbica na amplitude do campo elétrico aplicado. Em particular, nós estamos interessados em termos que são lineares na amplitude do laser e quadraticos na do ruído. Devido a este processo, são geradas novas ondas que apresentam picos bem definidos no espectro e muito sensíveis aos parâmetros de dispersão de alta ordem (até quarta ordem e demonstrada nesta tese). Medidas com pulsos de curta duração (~ 100 ps para o laser e ~ 40 ps para o ruído em nossos experimentos) nos permitem caracterizar como os parâmetros de dispersão variam ao longo da fibra com boa resolução espacial (< 1 km). Apresentamos também uma resolução numérica das equações exatas para determinar como os parâmetros de dispersão, em fibras de perfil de índice degrau, dependem do raio do núcleo da fibra. Encontramos que variações de 0.1 µm (± 1%) do raio do núcleo da fibra produzem mudancas no comprimento de onda de dispersão nula (?0) e no pico de FWM (?FWM) que são consistentes com os resultados experimentais. Também verificamos a existencia de um valor do raio do núcleo da fibra o qual oferece propriedades de dispersao robustas para processos paramétricos. Este trabalho visa contribuir para a compreensão dos processos nao-lineares e campos estocásticos e, do ponto de vista prático, para o desenvolvimento de um método eficiente para medir variações na dispersão de alta ordem ao longo da fibra / Abstract: We study the interaction between laser and noise in optical fibers, its dependence on chromatic dispersion and its application to characterize the parameters of dispersion fluctuations along the fiber. The interaction is governed by the nonlinear polarization of the third-order and, in this thesis, we consider specifically the process of four-wave mixing (FWM) described by cubical terms in the amplitude of the applied electric field. In particular, we concern linear terms in the amplitude of the laser and quadratic in the noise. Due to this process, new waves are generated that have well-defined peaks in the spectrum and very sensitive to the parameters of highorder dispersion (up to fourth order is demonstrated in this thesis). Measurements with pulses of short duration (~ 100 ps for the laser and ~ 40 ps for the noise in our experiments) allow us to characterize how the dispersion parameters vary along the fiber with good spatial resolution (< 1 km). We also present an exact numerical solution of the equations to determine how the parameters of dispersion, in a stepindex fiber, depending on the radius of the fiber core. We found that variations of 0.1µ m (± 1%) of the fiber core radius produce changes in the wavelength of zero dispersion (?0) and at the peak of FWM (?FWM) that are consistent with experimental results. We also verified the existence of a value of the radius of the fiber core which provides robust dispersion properties for parametric processes. This work aims to contribute to the understanding of nonlinear processes and stochastic fields, and the practical point of view, to develop an efficient method for measuring variations in the high-order dispersion along the fiber / Mestrado / Mestre em Física

Cette thèse est principalement dédiée à la simulation des écoulements massivement décollés dans le domaine spatial. Nous avons restreint notre étude aux écoulements d'arrière-corps, pour lesquels ces décollements sont imposés par des changements brutaux de la géométrie. Dans le domaine spatial, le caractère fortement compressible des écoulements rencontrés impose l'utilisation de schémas numériques robustes. D'un autre coté, la simulation fine de la turbulence impose des schémas d'ordre élevé et peu dissipatifs. Ces deux spécifications, apparemment contradictoires, doivent pourtant coexister au sein d'une même simulation. Les modèles de turbulence ainsi que les schémas de discrétisation sont indissociables et leur couplage doit impérativement être considéré. Les schémas numériques doivent garder leur précision formelle dans des géométries complexes et des maillages très irréguliers imposés par le contexte industriel. Cette étude analyse le schéma de discrétisation utilisé dans le code de calcul FLUSEPA développé par Airbus Defence & Space. Ce schéma est robuste et précis pour des écoulements avec chocs et il présente une faible sensibilité au maillage (l'ordre 3 étant conservé même sur des maillages fortement perturbés). Malheureusement, le schéma possède une trop faible résolvabilité liée à un niveau de dissipation trop élevé pour envisager des simulations hybrides RANS/LES. Pour pallier à cet inconvénient, nous nous sommes penchés vers une solution basée sur un recentrage conditionnel et local : dans les zones dominées par des structures tourbillonnaires, une fonction analytique assure un recentrage local lorsque la stabilité numérique le permet. Cette condition de stabilité assure le couplage entre le schéma et le modèle. De cette manière, les viscosités laminaire et tourbillonnaire sont les seules à jouer un rôle dans les régions dominées par la vorticité et servent aussi à stabiliser le schéma numérique. Cette étude présente de plus une comparaison qualitative et quantitative de plusieurs modèles hybrides RANS/LES, à égalité de maillage et de schéma utilisés Pour cela, un certain nombre d'améliorations (notamment de leur capacité à résoudre les instabilités de Kelvin-Helmohlotz sans retard), proposées dans la littérature ou bien introduites dans cette thèse, sont prises en compte. Les applications numériques étudiées concernent des géométries allant de la marche descendante au lanceur spatial complet à échelle réduite. / This thesis is mainly dedicated to the simulation of massively separated flows in the space domain. We restricted our study to afterbody flows, where the separation is imposed by abrupt geometry changes. In the space domain, highly compressible flows require the use of robust numerical schemes. On the other hand, the simulation of turbulence imposes high-order low dissipative numerical schemes. These two specifications, apparently contradictory, must coexist within the same simulation. The coupling between turbulence models and discretization schemes is of the utmost importance and must be considered. Numerical schemes should keep their formal accuracy on complex geometries and on very irregular meshes imposed by the industrial context. In this research, we analyze the discretization scheme implemented in the FLUSEPA solver, developed by Airbus Defence & Space. Such a scheme is robust and accurate for flows with shocks and exhibits a low sensitivity to the grid (the third order of accuracy being ensured, even on highly irregular grids). Unfortunately, the scheme possesses a too low resolvability related to a too high numerical dissipation for RANS/LES simulations. To circumvent this problem, we considered a conditional and local re-centering strategy: in regions dominated by vortical structures, an analytic function provides local re-centering when a numerical stability condition is satisfied. This stability condition ensures the coupling between the numerical scheme and the model. In this way, only the turbulent and the laminar viscosities play a role in regions dominated by vorticity, and also allow to stabilize the numerical scheme. This study provides also a qualitative and quantitative assessment of several hybrid RANS/LES models, using the same grids and discretization scheme. For this purpose some recent improvements (improving their ability to trigger the Kelvin-Helmohlotz instabilities without delay), proposed in the litterature or suggested in this work, are taken into account. Numerical applications include geometrical configurations ranging from a backward facing step to realistic launcher configurations.

Les simulations numériques réalistes en électrophysiologie cardiaque ont un coût de calcul extrêmement élevé. Ce coût s’explique en grande partie par la raideur, à la fois en temps et en espace, d’une onde de « potentiel d’action » (PA). Par ailleurs, les phénomènes observés sont très instationnaires et s’étudient en temps long. Une description précise de la dynamique des PA est cruciale pour construire des modèles numériques pertinents d’un point de vue médical ou clinique. Cet aspect fondamental ne peut être contourné dans les études numériques réalistes.La raideur de l’onde de PA ne peut être captée numériquement qu’en ayant recours à des maillages très fins. Ces maillages très fins induisent un coût de calcul très important, et introduisent aussi des erreurs supplémentaires : les systèmes linéaires à résoudre deviennent très mal conditionnés. Au final, les erreurs numériques peuvent être particulièrement grandes dans les simulations alors que leur contrôle est évidemment essentiel pour assurer la fiabilité des résultats. Jusqu’à présent, très peu de résultats sont disponibles pour assurer cette fiabilité. Dans les faits, les erreurs sont la plupart du temps contrôlées par des procédés empiriques. Il existe quelques résultats théoriques étudiant la convergence et la stabilité des schémas numériques associés. En pratique, en plus d'avoir un contrôle de l'erreur sur le potentiel, il est aussi nécessaire d'avoir un contrôle de l’erreur sur des quantités macroscopiques décrivant la dynamique de l’onde de PA : temps d’activation, durée du PA, propriétés de restitution... Ces quantités ont en effet une interprétation physiologique qui permet de caractériser le caractère arythmogène des tissus.Les modèles sont des systèmes d’EDP de réaction-diffusion couplés avec des systèmes d’équations différentielles pouvant être très raides, les modèles ioniques. Ils sont actuellement discrétisés par éléments finis conforme (Lagrange) et par des schémas en temps d’ordre un ou deux. Dans ce travail, nous concevons et évaluons l’intérêt d'utiliser des méthodes d’ordre supérieure pour ces systèmes. Parallèlement nous introduisons d'une part une nouvelle classe de schémas appelé schémas exponentiel Adams Bashforth intégral (IEAB), et d'autre part des schémas Rush Larsen (RL) d'ordre élevé. Ces nouveaux schémas sont des schémas multipas de type exponentiels. Nous montrons qu'ils possèdent des bonnes propriétés de stabilité et permettent de faire face efficacement à la raideur des modèles ioniques. Les schémas que nous proposons sont comparés numériquement (en terme de précision, coût en temps de calcul et stabilité) à plusieurs schémas classiques, ainsi qu'aux schémas exponentiels (RL1, RL2) communément utilisés pour des simulations en électrophysiologie cardiaque. Nous proposons des techniques permettant de calculer avec précision les quantités d’intérêts cliniques (temps d’activation, de récupération, durée du potentiel d’action). Des résultats théoriques de convergence en temps et de convergence globale (espace et temps) sont énoncés et prouvés. Ces résultats sont ensuite illustrés numériquement à travers le modèle monodomaine et les modèles ioniques de Beeler Reuter, de Ten Tusscher et al. L’intérêt d'utiliser des schémas d'ordre élevés est aussi évalué sur des ondes spirales en 2D et 3D. / Realistic numerical simulations in cardiac electrophysiology have a computational cost of extremely high. This cost is largely explained by the stiffness both in time and space, of the action potential (AP) wave. Moreover, the observed phenomena are very unsteady and are studied in long time. A precise description of the dynamic of AP is crucial for constructing relevant numerical models, from a medical or clinical perspective. This fundamental aspect can not be circumvented in realistic numerical studies.The stiffness of AP wave can only be captured numerically, by using very fine meshes. In addition to the high computational cost, these very fine meshes also introduce additional errors : the linear systems to solve become very badly conditioned. In the end, the numerical errors can be particularly large whereas their control is obviously essential to ensure the reliability of the results. So far very few results are available to ensure this reliability. In practice, the errors are mostly controlled by empirical processes. In practice, in addition of having a control of the error on the potential, it is also necessary to have an error control on macroscopic quantities describing the dynamics of the AP wave : activation time, AP duration, properties of restitution ... These quantities have indeed a physiological interpretation which allows to characterize the arrhythmogenic character of the tissues.The models are systems of reaction diffusion PDE coupled with systems of differential equations that can be very stiffs (ionic models). They are currently discretized by conforming finite elements (Lagrange finite elements methods) and by schemes in time of order one or two. In this work, we design and evaluate the interest of using higher order methods for these systems. At the same time, we introduce on the one hand, a new class of schemes called Integral Exponential Adams Bashforth (IEAB) schemes and, on the other hand, high order Rush Larsen (RL) schemes. These new schemes are exponential time-stepping schemes. We show that they have good stability properties and can efficiently cope with the stiffness of ionic models. The schemes we propose are numerically compared (in terms of accuracy, CPU time and stability) with several classical schemes, as well as with the exponential schemes (RL1, RL2), commonly used for cardiac electrophysiology simulations. We propose good techniques for accurately calculating quantities of clinical interest (activation time, recovery time, duration of action potential). Theoretical results of convergence in time and global convergence (in space and time) are stated and proved. These results are then illustrated numerically through the monodomain model and the ionic models of Beeler Reuter, Ten Tusscher et al. The advantage of using high order schemes is also evaluated on spiral waves in 2D and 3D.

The degradation of astronomical images caused by atmospheric turbulence will be much more severe in the next generation of terrestrial telescopes and its compensation will require deformable mirrors with up to tens-of-thousands of actuators.<p>Current designs for these correctors consist of scaling up the proven technologies of flexible optical plates deformed under the out-of-plane action of linear actuators. This approach will lead to an exponential growth of cost with the number of actuators, and in very complex mechanisms.<p><p>This thesis proposes a new concept of optical correction which is modular, robust, lightweight and low-cost and is based on the bimorph in-plane actuation.<p><p>The adaptive mirror consists of segmented identical hexagonal bimorph mirrors allowing to indefinitely increase the degree of correction while maintaining the first mechanical resonance at the level of a single segment and showing an increase in price only proportional to the number of segments.<p><p>Each bimorph segment can be mass-produced by simply screen-printing an array of thin piezoelectric patches onto a silicon wafer resulting in very compact and lightweight modules<p>and at a price essentially independent from the number of actuators.<p><p>The controlled deformation of a screen-printed bimorph mirror was experimentally achieved with meaningful optical shapes and appropriate amplitudes; its capability for compensating turbulence was evaluated numerically. The generation of continuous surfaces<p>by an assembly of these mirrors was numerically simulated and a demonstrator of concept consisting of 3 segments was constructed. / Doctorat en Sciences de l'ingénieur / info:eu-repo/semantics/nonPublished

These thesis review some recent results on the construction of very high order multidimensional upwind schemes for the solution of steady and unsteady conservation laws on unstructured triangular grids.<p>We also consider the extension to the approximation of solutions to conservation laws containing second order dissipative terms. To build this high order schemes we use a subtriangulation of the triangular Pk elements where we apply the distribution used for a P1 element.<p>This manuscript is divided in two parts. The first part is dedicated to the design of the high order schemes for scalar equations and focus more on the theoretical design of the schemes. The second part deals with the extension to system of equations, in particular we will compare the performances of 2nd, 3rd and 4th order schemes.<p><p>The first part is subdivided in four chapters:<p>The aim of the second chapter is to present the multidimensional upwind residual distributive schemes and to explain what was the status of their development at the beginning of this work.<p>The third chapter is dedicated to the first contribution: the design of 3rd and 4th order quasi non-oscillatory schemes.<p>The fourth chapter is composed of two parts: we start by understanding the non-uniformity of the accuracy of the 2nd order schemes for advection-diffusion problem. To solve this issue we use a Finite Element hybridisation.<p>This deep study of the 2nd order scheme is used as a basis to design a 3rd order scheme for advection-diffusion.<p>Finally, in the fifth chapter we extend the high order quasi non-oscillatory schemes to unsteady problems.<p>In the second part, we extend the schemes of the first part to systems of equations as follows:<p>The sixth chapter deals with the extension to steady systems of hyperbolic equations. In particular, we discuss how to solve some issues such as boundary conditions and the discretisation of curved geometries.<p>Then, we look at the performance of 2nd and 3rd order schemes on viscous flow.<p>Finally, we test the space-time schemes on several test cases. In particular, we will test the monotonicity of the space-time non-oscillatory schemes and we apply residual distributive schemes to acoustic problems. / Doctorat en Sciences de l'ingénieur / info:eu-repo/semantics/nonPublished

Failure modes for sandwich beams of GFRP laminate skins and Nomex honeycomb core are investigated. Theoretical models using honeycomb mechanics and classical beam theory are described. A failure mode map for loading under 3-point bending, is constructed, showing the dependence of failure mode and load on the ratio of skin thickness to span length and honeycomb relative density. Beam specimens are tested in 3-point bending. The effect of honeycomb direction is also examined. The experimental data agree satisfactorily with the theoretical predictions. The results reveal the important role of core shear in a sandwich beam's bending behaviour and the need for a better understanding of indentation failure mechanism. High order sandwich beam theory (HOSBT) is implemented to extract useful information about the way that sandwich beams respond to localised loads under 3-point bending. 'High-order' or localised effects relate to the non-linear patterns of the in-plane and vertical displacements fields of the core through its height resulting from the unequal deformations in the loaded and unloaded skins. The localised effects are examined experimentally by Surface Displacement Analysis of video images recorded during 3-point bending tests. A new parameter based on the intrinsic material and geometric properties of a sandwich beam is introduced to characterise its susceptibility to localised effects. Skin flexural rigidity is shown to play a key role in determining the way that the top skin allows the external load to pass over the core. Furthermore, the contact stress distribution in the interface between the central roller and the top skin, and its importance to an indentation stress analysis, are investigated. To better model the failure in the core under the vicinity of localised loads, an Arcan- type test rig is used to test honeycomb cores under simultaneous compression and shear loading. The experimental measurements show a linear relationship between the out-of-plane compression and shear in honeycomb cores. This is used to derive a failure criterion for applied shear and compression, which is combined with the high order sandwich beam theory to predict failure caused by localised loads in sandwich beams made of GFRP laminate skins and Nomex honeycomb under 3-point bending loading. Short beam tests with three different indenter's size are performed on appropriately prepared specimens. Experiments validate the theoretical approach and reveal the nature of pre- and post-failure behaviour of these sandwich beams. HOSBT is used as a compact computational tool to reconstruct failure mode maps for sandwich panels. Superposition of weight and stiffness contours on these failure maps provide carpet plots for design optimisation procedures.

The development of numerical methods for the incompressible Navier-Stokes equations received much attention in the past 50 years. Finite element methods emerged given their robustness and reliability. In our work, we choose the P2-P1 finite element for space approximation which gives 2nd-order accuracy for velocity and 1st-order accuracy for pressure. Our research focuses on the development of several high-order semi-implicit time-stepping methods to compute unsteady flows. The methods investigated include backward difference formulae (SBDF) and defect correction strategy (DC). Using the defect correction strategy, we investigate two variants, the first one being based on high-order artificial compressibility and bootstrapping strategy proposed by Guermond and Minev (GM) and the other being a combination of GM methods with sequential regularization method (GM-SRM). Both GM and GM-SRM methods avoid solving saddle point problems as for SBDF and DC methods. This approach reduces the complexity of the linear systems at the expense that many smaller linear systems need to be solved. Next, we proposed several numerical improvements in terms of better approximations of the nonlinear advection term and high-order initialization for all methods. To further minimize the complexity of the resulting linear systems, we developed several new variants of grad-div splitting algorithms besides the one studied by Guermond and Minev. Splitting algorithm allows us to handle larger flow problems. We showed that our new methods are capable of reproducing flow characteristics (e.g., lift and drag parameters and Strouhal numbers) published in the literature for 2D lid-driven cavity and 2D flow around the cylinder. SBDF methods with grad-div stabilization terms are found to be very stable, accurate and efficient when computing flows with high Reynolds numbers. Lastly, we showcased the robustness of our methods to carry 3D computations.