M.Comm. / Due to uncertainties experienced while working for the South African Revenue Services and the fact that there are no specific sections in the Income Tax Act no. 58 of 1962 dealing with interest, foreign exchange and bad and doubtful debts of commercial banks there were a need to undertake a study. The study therefore undertakes an examination to determine if the existing sections of the Income Tax Act dealing with interest, foreign exchange and bad and doubtful debts are enough legislation to deal with the interest, foreign exchange and bad and doubtful debts of commercial banks. The study also try to clear all existing uncertainties experienced and mentioned in this study. The study can be divided into the following four parts: A literature study of the definition of "bank" and "banking operations", in terms of history and current legislation. A study of the definition of "interest" and "finance charges", in terms of sections of the Income Tax Act, Act no. 58 of 1962 and applicable court cases. The chapter also concentrates on the application of section 24J of the Income Tax Act on the interest-transactions of commercial banks as well as the identification of any short falls of the section. Before interest can be treated in terms of section 24J of the Income Tax Act, the source of the interest will have to be in South Africa. General sourse principles applicable to commercial banks as well as the deductability of interest expenses when expenced to generate exempt income will therefore also be covered in this chapter. A study of the application of section 241 of the Income Tax Act dealing with the foreign exchange of commercial banks. An examination of the way commercial banks should treat their bad and doubtful debts and the factors taken into account in court decisions relating thereto. The most important activities of a bank are identified in this study as the acceptance of deposits, the provision of credit, rendering of financial services and the trade in exchange and the utilisation of money and interest received. In terms of section 24J of the Income Tax Act, interest include finance charges, premiums or disconto's, all interests and the difference between all amounts payable or receivable in terms of a sale and leaseback agreement. It was found that all the interest of a commercial bank are included in the definition of interest and all the transactions of a commercial bank are treated in terms of section 24J of the Income Tax Act for income tax purposes. Section 241 of the Income Tax Act focuses on foreign exchange transactions and are found to be enough legislation for the foreign exchange transactions of commercial banks. Although bad and doubtful debts are not part of the activities of a commercial bank they are part of the uncertainties experienced while working for the South African Revenue Services. During the study it was found that doubtful debts can not be deducted in terms of section 11(a) of the Income Tax Act but only in terms of section 11(j) of the Income Tax Act. It is practice for the South African Revenue Services to only allows 25% of the full amount of doubtful debts, but as this discretion is subject to objection and appeal, the bank is entitled to claim a higher percentage as a deduction if they can provide proveto justify a higher deduction. It was also found that commercial banks can claim their bad debts in term of section 11(a) of the Income Tax Act.

Atualmente, verifica-se um momento de grande reflexão dos aplicadores do Direito Tributário, em decorrência do impacto trazido pelos novos métodos e critérios contábeis aplicados à apuração do lucro societário das empresas no Brasil. A aplicação dos princípios contábeis geralmente aceitos passou a estabelecer novos paradigmas para o reconhecimento e mensuração do lucro, influenciando a forma de interpretar a legislação tributária. Esse contexto ganha grande relevância no que tange à apuração e tributação da renda no setor imobiliário. Isto porque esse setor da economia é cuidadosamente regulamentado, do ponto de vista contábil, tanto pela legislação societária quanto pela fiscal. Com efeito, o presente estudo analisa a delimitação da competência constitucional para tributação da renda pela União, sobretudo os limites oferecidos pelos princípios constitucionais tributários. Também se analisam as definições de renda pelo CTN e os critérios de definição do momento de realização. Ocorre que a definição do fato gerador do imposto de renda muitas vezes se vale de conceitos previstos em outras áreas do Direito, especialmente no Direito Privado. Dessa forma, são analisados os conceitos estabelecidos pelo Direito Contábil Societário, pois são fundamentais para a quantificação da matéria tributável. Após o estabelecimento da base teórica para a tributação da renda, passa-se à análise dos principais aspectos jurídicos das operações imobiliárias (negócios que envolvem a exploração econômica, direta ou indireta, da propriedade imobiliária). Essa primeira análise é necessária para se estabelecerem os parâmetros adequados para o reconhecimento e a mensuração da renda, intrinsecamente relacionada à transferência de riscos e benefícios. Um segundo passo importante, para a apuração da renda do setor imobiliário, corresponde à análise dos principais métodos e critérios contábeis estabelecidos pela legislação societária, pois esse é o parâmetro inicial para a apuração do montante a ser tributado. Por fim, analisam-se a coerência e a adequação das regras de tributação da renda no setor imobiliário, para as pessoas físicas e as pessoas jurídicas. Também serão abordados os regimes específicos de tributação previstos na legislação brasileira. / In recent years, tax law practitioners have been forced to rethink due to the impact of new accounting methods and criteria applied to the calculation of corporate profits in Brazil. The application of generally accepted accounting principles has established new parameters for the recognition and measurement of profits, thereby influencing the interpretation of tax law. This ontext has acquired great relevance regarding the calculation and taxation of income in the real estate sector. This is due to the fact that this economic sector is carefully regulated from an accounting standpoint, as much by corporate law as by tax law. Indeed, this work analyzes the limits of the constitutional authority for Federal taxation of income, especially as regards the bounds set out by constitutional principles of taxation. It also analyses the Brazilian National Tax Code (CTN) definition of income, as well as the definition of the moment when income is realized. It happens that the definition of the tax-triggering event for income tax often relies on concepts derived from other areas of law, especially privet law. Therefore, the concepts established by corporate accounting law are analyzed here, as they are fundamental concepts for the quantification of the tax bases. After establishing the theoretical basis for income taxation, the main legal aspects of real estate transactions are analyzed (those involving direct or indirect real estate economic exploration). This first analysis is necessary in order to establish the appropriate parameters for the recognition and measurement of income, intrinsically related to the transfer of risks and benefits. A second important step for the calculation of income in the real estate sector corresponds to the analysis of the main accounting methods and criteria established by corporate law, as this is the initial parameter for the calculation of the tax basis. Finally, this work analyzes the coherence and proportion of the income taxation rules in the real estate sector, for individuals and corporations. The special tax regimes established by Brazilian law will also be addressed.

Atualmente, verifica-se um momento de grande reflexão dos aplicadores do Direito Tributário, em decorrência do impacto trazido pelos novos métodos e critérios contábeis aplicados à apuração do lucro societário das empresas no Brasil. A aplicação dos princípios contábeis geralmente aceitos passou a estabelecer novos paradigmas para o reconhecimento e mensuração do lucro, influenciando a forma de interpretar a legislação tributária. Esse contexto ganha grande relevância no que tange à apuração e tributação da renda no setor imobiliário. Isto porque esse setor da economia é cuidadosamente regulamentado, do ponto de vista contábil, tanto pela legislação societária quanto pela fiscal. Com efeito, o presente estudo analisa a delimitação da competência constitucional para tributação da renda pela União, sobretudo os limites oferecidos pelos princípios constitucionais tributários. Também se analisam as definições de renda pelo CTN e os critérios de definição do momento de realização. Ocorre que a definição do fato gerador do imposto de renda muitas vezes se vale de conceitos previstos em outras áreas do Direito, especialmente no Direito Privado. Dessa forma, são analisados os conceitos estabelecidos pelo Direito Contábil Societário, pois são fundamentais para a quantificação da matéria tributável. Após o estabelecimento da base teórica para a tributação da renda, passa-se à análise dos principais aspectos jurídicos das operações imobiliárias (negócios que envolvem a exploração econômica, direta ou indireta, da propriedade imobiliária). Essa primeira análise é necessária para se estabelecerem os parâmetros adequados para o reconhecimento e a mensuração da renda, intrinsecamente relacionada à transferência de riscos e benefícios. Um segundo passo importante, para a apuração da renda do setor imobiliário, corresponde à análise dos principais métodos e critérios contábeis estabelecidos pela legislação societária, pois esse é o parâmetro inicial para a apuração do montante a ser tributado. Por fim, analisam-se a coerência e a adequação das regras de tributação da renda no setor imobiliário, para as pessoas físicas e as pessoas jurídicas. Também serão abordados os regimes específicos de tributação previstos na legislação brasileira. / In recent years, tax law practitioners have been forced to rethink due to the impact of new accounting methods and criteria applied to the calculation of corporate profits in Brazil. The application of generally accepted accounting principles has established new parameters for the recognition and measurement of profits, thereby influencing the interpretation of tax law. This ontext has acquired great relevance regarding the calculation and taxation of income in the real estate sector. This is due to the fact that this economic sector is carefully regulated from an accounting standpoint, as much by corporate law as by tax law. Indeed, this work analyzes the limits of the constitutional authority for Federal taxation of income, especially as regards the bounds set out by constitutional principles of taxation. It also analyses the Brazilian National Tax Code (CTN) definition of income, as well as the definition of the moment when income is realized. It happens that the definition of the tax-triggering event for income tax often relies on concepts derived from other areas of law, especially privet law. Therefore, the concepts established by corporate accounting law are analyzed here, as they are fundamental concepts for the quantification of the tax bases. After establishing the theoretical basis for income taxation, the main legal aspects of real estate transactions are analyzed (those involving direct or indirect real estate economic exploration). This first analysis is necessary in order to establish the appropriate parameters for the recognition and measurement of income, intrinsically related to the transfer of risks and benefits. A second important step for the calculation of income in the real estate sector corresponds to the analysis of the main accounting methods and criteria established by corporate law, as this is the initial parameter for the calculation of the tax basis. Finally, this work analyzes the coherence and proportion of the income taxation rules in the real estate sector, for individuals and corporations. The special tax regimes established by Brazilian law will also be addressed.

As the number of non-resident sports persons competing in South Africa increases so does the need to tax them more effectively. It was for this reason that the South African legislature decided to insert Part IlIA into the Income Tax Act which regulates the taxation of non-resident sports persons in South Africa. The new tax on foreign sports persons, which came into effect during August 2006, is a withholding tax placing the onus upon the organizer of the event to withhold the tax portion of the payment to the non-resident sportsperson and pay it over to the revenue services. The rate of taxation has been set at 15 percent on all amounts received by or accruing to a foreign sportsperson. The question which the research addressed is whether this new tax will prove to be an effective tax, both from the point of view of its equity and the administration of the tax. In order to determine the impact of the new tax, it was compared to similar taxes implemented in the United Kingdom and Australia and also to other withholding taxes levied in South Africa. The new tax was also measured against a theoretical model for effectiveness, compared to the pre-August 2006 situation and to the taxation of resident sportsmen and women, using hypothetical examples. The major shortcomings of the new withholding tax are the uncertainty with regard to the intention of the legislature on matters such as the taxation of capital income versus revenue income, the question whether payments to support staff are included in the ambit of the new tax, the taxation of the award of assets in lieu of cash payments and the definition of a resident. A further area of concern is that the rate of taxation of 15 percent appears to be too low and creates horizontal inequity between the taxation of resident and non-resident sports persons. The new tax on non-resident sports persons may have its shortcomings but, depending upon the administrative and support structures put in place to deal with it, will be an effective tax. The rate at which the tax is levied could result in a less tax being collected than before but, with the reduced administrative cost of tax collection, the effective/statutory ratio of the tax could well be much higher than it was. This is a new tax in South Africa and certain initial problems are inevitable and will undoubtedly be solved as the administrators gain experience and as the case law governing this tax develops. / KMBT_363

Thesis (MComm)--Stellenbosch University, 2011. / ENGLISH ABSTRACT: Section 74D of the Income Tax Act No 58 of 1962 (the Act) grants the power of search and seizure to the South African Revenue Service, the basic underlying principle being that the Commissioner has to obtain a warrant from a judge prior to a search and seizure operation. The previous section 74(3) of the Act provided that the Commissioner was allowed himself to authorise and conduct a search and seizure operation without the requirement of a warrant. Section 74D of the Act was recently reviewed and the Tax Administration Bill (the TAB) contains the new provisions on search and seizure that will replace section 74D of the Act. In this assignment, the concept of search and seizure was examined by considering the cases, academic writing and other material on the topic. The objectives were to analyse the development of search and seizure in South African income tax law, to provide a basic understanding of the warranted and warrantless search and seizure provisions of the Act and the TAB, to determine their constitutionality and to determine the remedies available to a taxpayer who has been subject to a search and seizure. It was found that search and seizure has developed from warrantless under the previous section 74(3) of the Act into the requirement of a warrant under section 74D of the Act into a combination of both under the TAB. The concept of an ex parte application was analysed, which was shown to be permissible in certain circumstances under section 74D of the Act, while it is now compulsory in terms of the TAB. It was shown that the TAB closed the lacuna in the Act relating to the validity period of a warrant before it has been executed. It was, however, concluded, regarding whether a warrant expires when exercised or whether the same warrant can be used again to conduct a second search and seizure, that the position is not quite certain in terms of the Act and the TAB. It was found that there is no defined meaning of the reasonable grounds criterion, which is often required to be met in terms of the Act and the TAB, but that anyone that has to comply with the criterion must be satisfied that the grounds in fact exist objectively. The new warrantless search and seizure provisions of the TAB were analysed. It was established that warrantless search and seizure provisions are not uncommon in other statutes, but that the content thereof often differs. The new warrantless provisions were compared to the warrantless search and seizure provisions of, inter alia, the Competition Act No 89 of 1998 (the Competition Act), and it was found that the warrantless TAB provisions are not in all respects as circumscribed as those of the Competition Act and recommendations for counterbalances were made. It was concluded that the warranted search and seizure provisions of the Act and the TAB should be constitutionally valid but that the constitutionality of the new warrantless provisions of the TAB is not beyond doubt. It was furthermore found that the remedies at the disposal of a taxpayer who has been subject to a search and seizure should indeed be sufficient, but that there are no remedies available to a taxpayer to prevent injustice or harm. / AFRIKAANSE OPSOMMING: Artikel 74D van die Inkomstebelastingwet No 58 van 1962, (die Wet) verleen aan die Suid-Afrikaanse Inkomstediens die mag van deursoeking en beslaglegging, die grondliggende beginsel synde dat die Kommissaris ’n lasbrief van ’n regter moet verkry voor die deursoeking en beslaglegging kan plaasvind. Die vorige artikel 74(3) van die Wet het bepaal dat die Kommissaris self ’n deursoeking en beslaglegging kon magtig en uitvoer sonder die vereiste van ’n lasbrief. Artikel 74D van die Wet is onlangs hersien en die nuwe Belastingadministrasie-wetsontwerp (BAW) bevat die nuwe bepalings oor deursoeking en beslaglegging wat artikel 74D van die Wet sal vervang. In hierdie werkstuk is die konsep van deursoeking en beslaglegging ondersoek deur oorweging van die hofsake, akademiese skrywe en ander materiaal oor die onderwerp. Die doelstellings was om die ontwikkeling van deursoeking en beslaglegging in die Suid-Afrikaanse inkomstebelastingreg te ontleed, om ’n basiese begrip van die bepalings in die Wet en die BAW oor deursoeking en beslaglegging met en sonder ’n lasbrief te verskaf, om die grondwetlikheid daarvan te bepaal en om die remedies te bepaal wat beskikbaar is vir ’n belastingpligtige wat onderworpe was aan deursoeking en beslaglegging. Daar is bevind dat deursoeking en beslaglegging ontwikkel het vanaf sonder ’n lasbrief ingevolge die vorige artikel 74(3) van die Wet tot die vereiste van ’n lasbrief ingevolge artikel 74D van die Wet tot die kombinasie van albei ingevolge die BAW. Die konsep van ’n ex parte-aansoek is ontleed, en dit blyk in sekere omstandighede ingevolge artikel 74D van die Wet toelaatbaar te wees, terwyl dit nou ingevolge die BAW verpligtend is. Daar is aangedui dat die BAW die lacuna in die Wet oor die geldigheidsperiode van ’n lasbrief voordat dit uitgevoer is, verwyder het. Daar is egter bevind, rakende die vraag of ’n lasbrief verval wanneer dit uitgevoer word en of dieselfde lasbrief weer gebruik kan word om ’n tweede deursoeking en beslaglegging uit te voer, dat daar nie sekerheid ingevolge die Wet of die BAW bestaan nie. Daar is bevind dat daar geen gedefinieerde betekenis vir die kriterium van redelike gronde is nie, waaraan dikwels ingevolge die Wet en die BAW voldoen moet word, maar dat enigiemand wat aan die kriterium moet voldoen tevrede moet wees dat die gronde inderwaarheid objektief bestaan. Die nuwe bepalings van die BAW oor deursoeking en beslaglegging sonder ’n lasbrief is ondersoek. Daar is vasgestel dat bepalings oor deursoeking en beslaglegging sonder ’n lasbrief nie ongewoon is in ander wette nie, maar dat die inhoud daarvan dikwels verskil. Die nuwe bepalings oor deursoeking en beslaglegging sonder ’n lasbrief is vergelyk met die bepalings oor deursoeking en beslaglegging sonder ’n lasbrief van, inter alia, die Mededingingswet No 89 van 1998 (die Mededingingswet), en daar is bevind dat die BAW-bepalings oor deursoeking en beslaglegging sonder ’n lasbrief nie in alle opsigte so afgebaken is soos dié van die Mededingingswet nie en voorstelle vir teenwigte is gemaak. Die gevolgtrekking is gemaak dat die bepalings oor deursoeking en beslaglegging met ’n lasbrief van die Wet en die BAW grondwetlik geldig behoort te wees, maar dat die grondwetlikheid van die nuwe bepalings van die BAW oor deursoeking en beslaglegging sonder ’n lasbrief nie onweerlegbaar is nie. Daar is verder bevind dat die remedies tot die beskikking van ’n belastingpligtige wat onderworpe was aan deursoeking en beslaglegging inderdaad genoegsaam behoort te wees, maar dat daar geen remedies aan ’n belastingpligtige beskikbaar is om ongeregtigheid of skade te voorkom nie.

Thesis (MAcc)--Stellenbosch University, 2014. / ENGLISH ABSTRACT: The requirements of section 11(a) and section 24J(2) were considered in this research assignment, from both a money-lender’s and an investment holding company’s perspective, to determine whether interest, losses on irrecoverable loans and raising fees were tax deductible. It was determined, that if the trade requirement is satisfied by the money-lender, then the above-mentioned expenses are fully tax deductible. However, if the trade requirement is satisfied by the investment holding company then only the interest is fully tax deductible. It is further submitted however in this research assignment that it cannot be said that the money-lender alternative is better than the investment holding company alternative – both alternatives are of equal value in the current tax system. What is important though is that taxpayers who will fit the mould of an investment holding company will now be able to use the principles set out in this research assignment to prove that it is in fact carrying on a trade for tax purposes, something that taxpayers are generally reluctant to pursue. If this is pursued, taxpayers may have the added tax benefit of tax deductible interest expenditure (in full) in cases where this was not previously the norm (and an investment holding company will not have to satisfy any of the guidelines of the “money-lender test” when it seeks to deduct its interest expense in full). However, if an investment holding company seeks to deduct losses on irrecoverable loans and raising fees for tax purposes, it will not have to satisfy all the guidelines of the “money-lender test”, but it will have to satisfy one guideline, that being the “system or plan” and “frequent turnover of capital” guideline. It will be very difficult for an investment holding company to prove this on the facts of the case – it will arguably take a special set of facts to accomplish this mean feat. / AFRIKAANSE OPSOMMING: Die vereistes van artikel 11(a) en artikel 24J (2) is in hierdie navorsingsopdrag vanuit ʼn geldskieter en 'n beleggingshouermaatskappy se perspektief oorweeg, om die belastingaftrekbaarheid van rente, verliese op oninvorderbare lenings en diensfooie te bepaal. Daar is vasgestel dat indien die bedryfsvereiste deur ʼn geldskieter nagekom word, bogenoemde uitgawes ten volle vir belastingdoeleindes aftrekbaar is. Indien die bedryfsvereiste egter nagekom word deur ʼn beleggingshouermaatskappy sal slegs die rente ten volle aftrekbaar wees vir belastingdoeleindes. Verder word dit in die navorsingsopdrag aan die hand gedoen dat daar nie gesê kan word dat die geldskieter-alternatief beter is as die beleggingshouermaatskappy-alternatief nie – beide alternatiewe is van gelyke waarde in die huidige belastingbestel. Die onderskeid is egter belangrik, aangesien die belastingbetalers wat aan die vereistes van ʼn beleggingshouermaatskappy voldoen, nou in staat sal wees om die beginsels wat in hierdie navorsingsopdrag uiteengesit word, te gebruik om te bewys dat die beleggingshouermaatskappy in werklikheid ʼn bedryf vir belastingdoeleindes beoefen. Belastingbetalers is oor die algemeen huiwerig om dit te poog. Indien wel, kan belastingbetalers ʼn belastingaftrekking ten opsigte van rente uitgawes kry, wat voorheen nie die norm was nie (ʼn beleggingshouermaatskappy sal nie enige van die “geldskietertoets” riglyne hoef na te kom wanneer dit poog om ʼn belastingafrekking vir die rente uitgawe te kry nie). Indien ʼn beleggingshouermaatskappy verliese op oninvorderbare lenings en diensfooie vir belastingdoeleindes wil aftrek, sal die belastingbetaler nie al die “geldskietertoets” riglyne hoef na te kom nie, maar sal egter moet voldoen aan die “stelsel of plan” en “gereelde omset van kapitaal” riglyne. Dit sal baie moeilik wees vir 'n beleggingshouermaatskappy om dit te bewys op grond van die feite van die saak – dit sal waarskynlik ʼn spesiale stel feite verg om dit te bereik.

Thesis (MComm)--Stellenbosch University, 1998. / ENGLISH ABSTRACT: In the Fifth Interim Report of the Katz Commission recommendations were made on a number of fundamental tax issues, including the distinction between the source and residence principle. The Commission decided that the source principle should remain but that a distinction between "active" and "passive" income should be made. "Active" income should then be taxed on the source principle and "passive" income on the residence principle. With effect from 1 July 1997 exchange controls for South African residents were softened, which meant that South Africans could thereafter invest in foreign countries to a limited extent. To protect the South African tax base, sections 9C and 90 were incorporated in the Income Tax Act with effect from 1 July 1997. Section 9C regulates the taxation of investment income earned in foreign countries. The main purpose of this study was to investigate the taxation of foreign investment income in South Africa. For this purpose a critical analysis of section 9C was done within the context of the recommendations made by the Katz Commission in their Fifth Report. The focus of the study was aimed at the requirements for the exclusion of so-called active investment income according to section 9C(3)(a). In the analysis of section 9C it was necessary to determine where the terms used in the section were derived from. The terms which are not new in the South African tax context were analysed based on the opinions of tax specialists and national case law. The terms which are new in the South African tax context were mostly derived from international models of tax conventions and foreign tax codes. These were analysed according to the use thereof mainly in the Model Tax Convention on Income and on capital of the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development and the Commentaries thereon. The critical analysis of section 9C also included the applicability of the section on other sections in the Income Tax Act, a brief commentary on section 90 and the relief provided to taxpayers where the section leads to double taxation. The ability of the South African Revenue Service to collect the tax, the effect of the tax on immigrants and the effect of the electronic future on the tax were also investigated. The conclusion arrived at in this study is that most of the terms in section 9C are based on internationally used terms and could be analysed according to international tax conventions and case law. The South African Revenue Service will have to provide guidelines for the uncertainties and provide measures to rectify the irregularities and inconsistencies found in the section. In the light of further examinations to be done by the South African Revenue Service, based on the recommendations of the Katz Commission in their Fifth Report, section 9C provides a set of internationally accepted principles as a solid base for future regulation. / AFRIKAANSE OPSOMMING: Die Katz-kommissie het in die Vyfde Interim Verslag aanbevelings aangaande 'n aantal fundamentele belastingkwessies, insluitend die onderskeid tussen die bron- en verblyf-grondslag, gemaak. Die Kommissie het tot die gevolgtrekking gekom dat die bron-grondslag behou moet word, maar dat daar 'n onderskeid tussen "aktiewe" en "passiewe" inkomste gemaak moet word. "Aktiewe" inkomste moet dan op die bron-grondslag belas word en "passiewe" inkomste op die verblyf-grondslag. Met ingang 1 Julie 1997 is die valutabeheermaatreels vir Suid-Afrikaanse inwoners verslap wat beteken het dat Suid-Afrikaners voortaan tot 'n beperkte mate in die buiteland beleggings kan maak. Om die Suid-Afrikaanse belastingbasis in die tussentyd te beskerm is artikels 9C en 9D met ingang 1 Julie 1997 tot die Wet gevoeg. Artikel 9C reguleer die belasting van beleggingsinkomste uit buitelandse bronne. Die hoofdoel van hierdie studie was om die belasting van beleggingsinkomste uit buitelandse bronne in Suid-Afrika te ondersoek. 'n Kritiese analise van artikel 9C is gedoen binne die konteks van die voorstelle gemaak deur die Katz-kommissie in die Vyfde Verslag. Die klem van die studie het op die vereistes vir die uitsluiting van sogenaamde aktiewe beleggingsinkomste in artikel 9C(3)(a) geval. Tydens die ontleding van artikel 9C was dit noodsaaklik om vas te stel waar die terme wat in die artikel gebruik is, ontstaan het. Die terme wat nie vir die eerste maal in die Suid-Afrikaanse belastingkonteks gebruik is nie, is ontleed na aanleiding van die menings van Suid-Afrikaanse belastingspesialiste en nasionale regspraak. Die nuwe terme kom meesal in internasionale modelle van belastingkonvensies en buitelandse belastingkodes voor. Die terme is hoofsaaklik ontleed na aanleiding van die gebruik daarvan in die Model Tax Convention on Income and on capital of the Organisation for Economic Cooperation and Development. Die kritiese ontleding van artikel 9C het die toepaslikheid van die artikel op ander afdelings in die lnkomstebelstingwet, 'n kortlikse verwysing na artikel 9D en die verligting beskikbaar aan belastingpligtiges ten opsigte van dubbele belasting, ingesluit. Die invorderbaarheid van die belasting, die effek van die belasting op immigrante en die effek van die elektroniese toekoms op die belasting is ook ondersoek. Die slotsom waartoe die skrywer in hierdie studie gekom het, is dat meeste van die begrippe in artikel 9C internasionaal verstaanbaar is en ontleed kon word, wat die Wet wereldwyd meer aanvaarbaar en verstaanbaar behoort te maak. Die Suid-Afrikaanse lnkomstediens sal egter riglyne ten opsigte van die onduidelike begrippe moet verskaf en die nodige ongelykhede en inkonsekwenthede in die Wet moet regstel. In die lig van verdere ondersoeke deur die Suid-Afrikaanse lnkomstediens, na aanleiding van die voorstelle deur die Katz-kommissie in die Vyfde Verslag, verskaf artikel 9C 'n stel internasionaal aanvaarde beginsels waarop toekomstige regulasies gebaseer sal kan word.

The federal income tax system in the United States depends upon a high degree of voluntary compliance. The IRS estimates that the voluntary compliance level is declining and that this tax compliance gap cost the government an estimated $90.5 billion in 1981. Between 1979 and 1982, Congress made several changes in the tax laws designed to improve tax compliance. Extensive data was collected by the IRS for 1979 and 1982 through the random sample audits of approximately 50,000 taxpayers on the Taxpayer Compliance Measurement Program (TCMP), which is conducted every three years. During the period 1979 through 1982, Congress lowered the marginal tax rates, added some fairly severe penalties, for both taxpayers and paid return preparers, and increased information reporting requirements for certain types of income. In this research, it was hypothesized that voluntary compliance should increase in response to lower marginal rates, a higher risk of detection due to additional reporting requirements, and increased penalties. Multiple regression analysis was employed to test these hypotheses, using 1979 and 1982 TCMP data. Because of the requirements for taxpayer confidentiality, it was necessary for the IRS to run the data and provide the aggregate data results for the research. The results provided insight into the effectiveness of tax compliance legislation. While the overall voluntary compliance level (VCL) increased from 1979 to 1982 by 1.53 per cent, the VCL increase for taxpayers in high marginal rates was much smaller (.42 percent) than the overall increase. This is very inconsistent with the notion that high marginal rates are driving noncompliance, and suggests that marginal rates may not be strong determinants of compliance. Probably other factors, such as opportunity for evasion, may be more important. There was little change from 1979 to 1982 of the compliance of returns done by paid return preparers. Because of the timing of many TEFRA provisions (effective in 1983), further research for years after 1982 is needed.

This thesis "Tax planning in corporation" puts brain to legal entity income tax and it is looking for possible solutions in tax planning in corporation. The first part deals with the tax theory, the other part is the theory of tax planning, comparison of tax regimes and tax policy and tax revenue by optimizing both internationally and in the local aspect. The last part discusses options for optimizing tax

一.研究目的與方法 隨經濟的發展與進步，地方公共支出日益擴大，而地方稅收成長率又趕不上公共支出擴張的速度，地方財政日趨困難。在自有財源不足情況下，長年皆有賴上級政府補助。然隨國家各項重大建設實施，社會福利政策推動，中央政府財政亦感困難。為使地方各項政事能順利推展，地方政府應努力朝財政自主性方向解決問題。本文目的係基於地方政府自關財源的理念，對地方所得稅作一介紹，並對我國考量是否可引進該課稅制度作一初步評析，以為地方縣市開拓一可行之新財源，以部分紓解地方財務的困境。 本研究方法，首先以地方所得稅的理論基礎作一文獻上的整理及此稅課徵所應考慮的問題。繼而介紹美、日、韓等國課徵地方所得稅的制度，並比較世界各國課徵的現況，以為國內實施此稅之參考，並根據目前國內地方財政環境及稅務行政上的問題加以討論，分析我國實施地方所得稅之可行性。最後以試擬之地方所得稅制度，針對民國 83 及 84 年的稅基資料預估各縣市課徵得的稅收。 二.研究發現 (一)地方所得稅的理論依據 1.受益原則-- 因地方政府提供公共資源及設施，使個人之勞力與資本能夠發展其專長、獲取所得。再者，對非居民者之受益課稅。對在本地工作，而非居住於本地之工作者，由於目前僅有財產稅之課徵，無須繳納稅賦，造成使用公共資源卻不負擔成本的情況。故地方所得稅對居民及非居民在本地所賺取的所得者課以所得稅，使受益與付費能夠相互配合。 2.分散稅源-- 地方所得稅可分散稅源而降低其他地方稅的稅率，避免因過份依賴單一稅所形成的扭曲，並使地方稅制結構趨於效率及公平。另外，配合財產稅之下，提供地方政府穩定的收入來源。 (二)各國地方所得稅制度及其比較 各國地方所得稅制度設計規定不一，其特色可歸納如下： 1.地方個人所得稅-- 地方政府課徵地方所得稅時，其稅基往往採用中央所得稅的課徵資料，如課稅所得、分類所得或應納稅負等，顯示為降低稽徵成本，往往以中央之課稅資料，加以稍微修改。設計制度時，有些國家（如日本、韓國）會加入具有受益觀念的定額部分，使受益之居民分擔行政經費。使地方所得稅包括定額部分及所得部分，可收定額收穩定高及所得稅收彈性大的長處。 2.地方公司所得稅-- 各個國家的規定大多類似。除了根據應益關係對所屬行政區內的公司課徵定額部分的稅（如日本、韓國）外，一般規定，以其公司在當地所產生的營業所得，依照營業類別或所得高低，課以不同的稅率，亦或對所有公司採用一致的稅率。 (三)制度可行性分析 1.依據憲法第十章，財政收支劃分法第七條，省、縣自治法第十七條、十八條及第四十七條及尚待審議的地方稅法通則草案，已給予地方政府課徵地方所得稅適當的法源基礎。若中央制定稅法通則，以為省縣立法之依據，再經過省縣（市）議會議決即可實施。 2.地方所得稅徵收包括以個人及營利事業為對象。在稅基可行方向上，地方個人所得稅方面可採我國扣繳綜合所得稅之扣繳所得或綜合所得淨額方式課徵：地方營利事業所得稅可用每年營利事業所得額為可分配之稅基，以營利事業於各地之營業額做為分配稅基的基礎。 (四)稅收估計 根據地方所得稅試擬之制度，對 83、84 年度北、高及全省 21 縣市做稅收估計，綜合以下二點發現： 1.地方所得稅的徵收，縣市本身的所得稅基影響其可徵得的稅收甚大。 2.由稅收估計的結果顯示，地方所得稅課徵，各縣市每年可徵得稅收數額變動不大，可帶給地方政府穩定的課稅收入。 三、建議事項 建立一切實可行的「地方所得稅」制度，藉此充裕地方財源，增加地方財政的自主性，歸列以下幾點建議： (一)已由行政院會通過的「地方稅法通則草案」，應盡速由立法院審議以為縣市課徵地方所得稅之法令依據。 (二)為防止各縣市若自主獨立課徵，稅率規定不一，使各地居民間稅負上的差距不同，造成人口搬遷或移動，可考慮全國採取一致性的租稅課徵辦法，由中央政府加以規範，便於全國政事的推行。 (三)地方營利事業所得稅基於稅務行政的考量，可取用每年營利事業所得額做為可分配稅基，以營利事業於各地分公司之營業額為稅基分攤的基礎，乘以一比例稅率，為各縣市地方政府的稅收。 (四)地方個人所得稅，地方縣市參照我國綜合所得稅申報書，以綜合所得淨額未稅基課徵比例或累進稅；另外，基於所得稅即時徵繳的基本精神，亦可於給付所得時所填具的扣繳憑單藉以課徵單一稅率，列為縣市稅收。