Esta dissertação consiste num estudo crítico sobre Quincas Borba, de Machado de Assis, que tem como hipótese principal a de que a crise psíquica do personagem tem correspondente com o processo de problematização da forma do romance. Na obra encontramos, por meio de uma voz narrativa versátil, um personagem cindido, cuja trajetória culmina em loucura e morte. O escritor produziu uma obra inquieta diante de esquematismos propostos pelo Romantismo e Naturalismo, em uma possível busca de modalidades de ficção que estivessem mais de acordo com o seu perfil artístico (PASSOS, 2007). Além disso, ligar-se-ia à crise do personagem e aos questionamentos envolvendo a forma do romance a crise de composição que Machado de Assis enfrentou durante a escrita de Quincas Borba. O romance foi reescrito, produzindo diferenças entre a versão em folhetim, publicada em A Estação (1886-1891), e a publicada em livro (1891). Procuramos analisar tais variantes nas duas versões, considerando o uso que o escritor fez do discurso indireto livre na representação da interioridade dos personagens, incluindo o protagonista. Assim, ao considerar como a fragmentação da consciência de Rubião é operada pelo narrador de Quincas Borba e qual o seu sentido na relação estabelecida com os outros elementos da obra, a pesquisa pretende analisar o modo como Machado de Assis lidou com a forma do romance para compor um personagem em processo de desintegração psíquica, justamente em uma obra problemática do ponto de vista de seu próprio processo de escrita. / This thesis consists of a critical study about Machado de Assis\'s Quincas Borba, supporting the main hypothesis that the protagonist\'s psychic crisis corresponds to the complexity of the novel\'s form. In this novel, a versatile narrative voice portrays a \"split\" character whose trajectory culminates in madness, and death. In Brazil\'s literary scene, Machado de Assis was in search of fictional modalities to suit his artistic profile, having produced a disquieting work that defied the schemes set out by Romanticism and Naturalism (PASSOS, 2007). Furthermore, the crisis of the character and the questioning of the novel\'s form can be associated with the compositional crisis faced by the author during the writing process of Quincas Borba. The novel has been rewritten, resulting in differences between the serial version, published in A Estação (1886-1891), and the book version (1891). We analyse these variants focusing on the use that the author makes of free indirect speech in the representation of characters\'s inner self, including the protagonist. We aim to consider how Rubião\'s consciousness fragmentation is carried out by the narrator, and to understand the meaning of the rapport established among this form of fragmentation and other elements in the novel. This research will, therefore, analyse the means of portraying a character in the midst of psychic disintegration in a work whose very writing process was especially problematic.

The master thesis is called Indirect Speech Acts in series Vyprávěj and according to the title, it refers to indirect speech acts in the particular Czech series. The master thesis is based on Speech Act Theory by J. Austin, P. Grice and R. Searle. The most interesting thing on this issue is that words themselves are not so important as the meaning and intention which are hidden behind them. The master thesis would like to prove that indirect speech act is a part of illocution, the aim of a speaker in making an utterance, and stands hierarchical higher than a direct speech act.

Usage-based, constructivist approaches to first language acquisition assume that children’s linguistic abilities emerge in a piecemeal fashion through interaction with mature language users (Tomasello 2003). In spite of the fact that both formal and functional characteristics of the linguistic constructions involved are thought to be of importance in this process, most previous studies have focused exclusively on form. The current study aims at exploring the contribution of functional factors in the learning of a subset of yes-no questions: providing an in-depth analysis of the emergence of Can -person-process?-constructions in a high-density Childescorpus of a boy learning English (Lieven et al. 2009), it is shown that functional factors need to be considered in order to be able to account for the developmental path. It is suggested that we need to re-evaluate the relationship between (formal as well as functional) frequency, salience, and entrenchment and the ways in which these aspects interact during the language learning process. This has important implications for future research on language development as well as for claims about the mental organization of linguistic knowledge within CxG and Cognitive Linguistics more generally.

Ce travail se propose d’étudier, sous un angle grammatical, le phénomène romanesque connu sous le nom de "monologue intérieur", qu’il convient d’emblée de distinguer du "stream of consciousness", auquel il est souvent ramené. Afin de mieux cerner et de définir ce qu’est le monologue intérieur, nous confrontons les définitions qui en sont généralement données à des textes de fiction anglophones, et nous analysons les techniques linguistiques utilisées pour représenter ce discours particulier. Il apparaît donc que le monologue intérieur n’est pas une technique linguistique mais doit plutôt se concevoir comme une catégorie narratologique. Ce discours s’incarne grâce à diverses techniques linguistiques : le discours immédiat mais aussi certaines des techniques du discours rapporté, avec en son centre le discours direct (libre) et à sa périphérie le discours indirect classique. Le discours indirect libre, quant à lui, navigue entre les deux. Ces différentes techniques reposent donc sur une conception particulière du discours intérieur qu’elles véhiculent, et leur étude permet d’étudier la possibilité offerte à l’auteur ou au narrateur de détourner leur forme afin de servir une stratégie narrative, avec parfois pour but de faire passer pour verbal ce qui ne peut l’être. / This thesis investigates the literary phenomenon known as “interior monologue” from a grammatical point of view, and is based on a clear distinction between “interior monologue” and what is called “stream of consciousness”, both phenomena usually being seen as the same. The main objectives are therefore to define what we call “interior monologue” in order to confront this definition with English language literary texts, and to analyse the various linguistic techniques used to represent this special discourse. Interior monologue is therefore seen not as a linguistic technique but as a narratological category. This particular discourse is represented using different linguistic techniques: “immediate discourse” but also some of the reported speech techniques, with (free) direct speech as the core of the category, and indirect speech at its periphery, free indirect speech navigating between those two poles. These techniques differ both in their form and in the conception of the interior discourse they convey, but they always create the illusion of giving access to the (fictional) original discourse. It is for this reason that we want to show the possibility for the author or the narrator to use a syntactic form suggesting a reported discourse seemingly closely linked to the original discourse, to represent something that sometimes cannot be considered as verbal.

Cette thèse constitue la première étude générale de la modalité en néo-égyptien. Le chapitre introductif (p. 5-43) est consacré [1] à la définition de ce premier état de langue de légyptien de la seconde phase ; cette définition a permis la délimitation dun corpus servant dassise empirique à létude (la répartition du corpus en fonction de critères chronologiques et géographiques, de la nature du support et des "Textsorten" a donné la possibilité de pondérer et dobjectiver les analyses proposées pour chaque expression de la modalité). Ensuite, [2] un cadre théorique général pour létude de la langue est discuté. Le corps du travail se divise en trois parties consacrées respectivement : [1] à une définition générale de la notion de modalité (cela afin de déterminer les media expressifs qui relèvent de son étude en néo-égyptien) ainsi quà létablissement dun modèle sémantique à la fois économique, cohérent et correspondant aux données typologiques (p. 44-115) ; [2] à létude des modalités radicales (i.e. les modalités déontiques et bouliques en envisageant les relations quelles entretiennent avec le domaine axiologique ; p. 116-341) ; [3] à lexamen des modalités assertives (p. 342-446) : [a] analyse des formes de complémentation, en ce compris les liens entre intégration syntaxique, variation de lassertivité et degré de manipulation, [b] étude de limpact des auxiliaires dénonciation sur le degré dassertivité dune proposition, [c] critique des théories existantes concernant les moyens expressifs du discours indirect en néo-égyptien. Les conclusions (p. 447-466) sont accompagnées de propositions prospectives devant permettre [1] de rendre le modèle défendu applicable à létude des complexes conditionnels, [2] dintégrer la dimension énonciative dans lanalyse des relations interpersonnelles, [3] de proposer une approche globale des media expressifs de la causalité et de la finalité.

The subject of this dissertation is an analysis of the use of verbal tenses in Czech subordinate clauses. This analysis is based on the notions of relative and absolute tenses and on the distinction between content and adjunct clauses. We test the hypothesis about the connection of relative and absolute tense with the type of a subordinated clause (content and adjunct) and propose a revised version of the views presented in Czech grammars, monographs and articles based on a detailed analysis of the data from the Czech National Corpus. The syntactic and semantic criteria for the classification of dependent clauses into content and adjunct classes are studied together with the conditions for the application of relative or absolute tense. The great amount of data exploited from the Czech National Corpus support the idea that beside the expected forms of tense (relative in content clauses, absolute in adjunct clauses) there exists some shifting of the presupposed forms of verbal tenses. The explanation of these shifts is presented in this dissertation as a new contribution to the study of the interplay between Czech morphology and syntax. Key Words: subordinate content clause, relative tense, absolute tense, factual predicate, indirect speech

L’incise de citation a mauvaise réputation dans le champ narratif, où elle est pourtant fort utile pour indiquer la source des répliques : elle soulève de nombreuses polémiques, tant sur le plan de la théorie que de la pratique. Peu traitée par les études grammaticales, elle est souvent fustigée par les discours normatifs dès qu’elle s’écarte du prototypique dit-il, au nom de transgressions de certaines règles syntaxiques et logiques, décourageant les auteurs qui déplorent sa monotonie de la déjouer par des variations distributives et lexicales. Ce travail vise à exposer les difficultés analytiques soulevées par cette forme, qui voit bon nombre de ses réalisations rejetées comme incorrectes, et à s’interroger sur les fondements de tels jugements. Le parcours diachronique d’un vaste corpus narratif invite à reconsidérer sa monotonie, en rendant compte de son histoire, qui est celle d’une diversification formelle et fonctionnelle : bien plus que simple escorte du dialogue qui se contenterait d’en indiquer les actants, elle possède de nombreux rôles textuels qui font d’elle un enjeu narratorial et esthétique. / Interpolated clauses have a bad reputation in the narrative field, although they are very useful in indicating the source of lines ; they arouse numerous theoretical as well as practical controversies. Seldom dealt with in grammatical studies, they are often censured by normative discourses whenever they stray from the prototypical he said, as they transgress certain syntactic and logical rules. This censure discourages those authors who lament their monotony from trying to avoid this thanks to distributive and lexical variations. This study aims at showing the analytical difficulties that are raised by this form – many variants of which are rejected as incorrect –, and seeks to question the bases of such judgments. Looking at a vast, diachronic corpus of narrative texts invites us to qualify its monotony by accounting for its history, one of formal and functional diversification : interpolated clauses do not accompagny dialogues simply to point out their speakers, they have many textual roles that put them at the centre of narratorial and aesthetic issues.

In this thesis I chose the topic of the history of modern Italian literature, namely the period of neorealism. Literary production exceeds its framework and passes into another kind of art, into filmmaking. So thesis gains interdisciplinary character. Furthermore, for me, this period significant for its ethical and aesthetic values of the human society. The first part summarizes important books about the life of Pier Paolo Pasolini. In the central part is based on mutual comparison works, novels and films, the opinions of experts works drawn from secondary literature. It is currently the focus of work: analysis of novels and film sequences through which it speaks to us. In the last part of the thesis contents Pasolini's book dedicated to collection of essays bearing his poetic intention to intervene in language, literature and film layers of Italian culture.
 Pasolini's scope goes beyond individual disciplines, interconnects arts and beyond "mere" national scope. It opens up new issues in the community in which he later become fateful. The thesis is dedicated to the first half of Pasolini's life that affected him during processing works analyzed below: Ragazzi di vita and Una vita violenta, Accattone and Mamma Roma. The rest of his life is not addressed, it does not impinge subject of interest and...

La manipulation suscite un intérêt croissant dans tous les domaines de la communication humaine. Elle se réalise pleinement et principalement à travers le langage, que celui-ci soit combiné ou non avec d’autres moyens de communication. Or, le peu de travaux de recherche réalisés sur le sujet sont pratiquement inexistants en linguistique.La manipulation par le discours est une solution d’efficacité pour réaliser une communication qui semble compromise lorsque la tension est extrême entre les objectifs du locuteur d’une part, et les moyens dont il dispose et les contraintes du contexte de l’autre. La stratégie de manipulation par le discours s’apparente à la rhétorique tout en la détournant car elle doit garder secrets ses objectifs et ses moyens de réalisation. Même si elle peut se servir de l’argumentation, le plus souvent, elle l’évite.Le discours politique est l’un des meilleurs exemples de cette tension extrême qui est à l’origine de la manipulation. À ce titre, la campagne présidentielle de 2007 en France est le modèle le plus adapté et le plus récent d’étude de la manipulation par le discours.Cette recherche a pour objectif de rendre compte des moyens langagiers de réalisation des stratégies de manipulation dans une approche globale de l’analyse du discours. Elle procède par l’examen détaillé de ses différents supports formels : variations sémantiques, organisation syntaxique et discursive, jeux sur les incidences entre constituants, rôle de la répétition, implicite etc. Compte tenu de l’importance majeure du contexte dans sa réalisation, l’approche pragmatique, avec la théorie de l’implicite et celle des actes de langage, s’est ici révélée la plus appropriée. Elle a permis de rendre compte du fonctionnement du macro-acte de langage manipulatoire à travers de nombreux exemples tirés d’un corpus de 195 discours politiques, et d’élaborer une théorie globale de la manipulation par le discours. / The interest in manipulation is growing in all areas of human communication. It is fully realised mainly through the language, whether combined or not with other means of communication. However, in linguistics, studies conducted on this subject are virtually non-existent.Manipulation by the discourse is an effective solution for realising the communication that seems compromised when the tension is extreme between the goals of the speaker on the one hand, and the means available including constraints of the context, on the other hand. The strategy of manipulation by the discourse is similar to rhetoric, while diverting it, because manipulation must keep secret its objectives and its means of realisation. Although it may use argumentation, most often, it avoids it.Political discourse is one of the best examples of this extreme tension which is necessary to the manipulation. The 2007 presidential campaign in France is the most recent and perhaps most suitable model for the study of the manipulation by the discourse.This research aims to report on linguistic means of achieving manipulation strategies in a global approach of discourse analysis. It proceeds by a detailed examination of its various formal supports: semantic variations, syntactic and discourse organization, interactions between the constituents, the role of the repetition, the implication etc. Given the importance of the context in its realization, the pragmatic approach, with the theory of the speech acts, turned out to be the most appropriate choice. Through many examples based on a corpus of 195 political speeches, it helps explain how the macro-speech act of manipulation functions, and it helps develop a global theory of manipulation by the discourse.

Les deux premiers chants de Lucain témoignent d’une utilisation novatrice des discours directs dans l’épopée. Présentés sous forme de triades de paroles juxtaposées –le dialogue n’est plus possible dans le monde du De bello ciuili- dont l’objectif et le genre sont similaires, ils incitent le lecteur-auditeur de l’Antiquité, rompu aux joutes oratoires des concours de déclamation, à les comparer. L’examen de deux de ces groupes de discours sert de préliminaire à une enquête plus large sur la parole rhétorique, puis sur la parole poétique.Dans la confrontation des discours de la première triade (Curion / César /Laelius, au chant I) se lit la condamnation de l’éloquence traditionnelle fondée sur des valeurs éthiques universellement partagées. Elle est supplantée par une rhétorique sophistique qui redéfinit, exclusivement en fonction des intérêts personnels de l’orateur, tout ce qui a trait au droit, au juste ou à la citoyenneté, notions problématiques dans le contexte de perversion morale du bellum ciuile. L’efficacité de cette nouvelle éloquence est signalée par le succès des trois suasoires qui sont à l’origine des grands tournants narratifs de l’œuvre : Curion décide César à entrer définitivement dans l’affrontement civil (Chant I), Cicéron pousse Pompée à donner le signal du début du combat à Pharsale (Chant VII) et Pothin persuade Ptolémée d’assassiner Magnus (Chant VIII).Dans la comparaison des trois paroles prophétiques de la fin du livre I auxquelles répondent les trois discours du début du chant suivant, effusions angoissées de Romains anonymes (les femmes, les hommes et le vieillard), se dessine un art poétique destiné à justifier les choix génériques du poète pour traiter son sujet. Conformant son œuvre à la médiocrité humaine des masses, il doit renoncer au genre tragique (discours des femmes) ainsi qu’à la célébration épique des héros (discours des hommes) et s’efforcer de proposer, à l’instar du vieillard qui se remémore le passé pour anticiper le futur (le plus long discours de l’épopée, rappelant, par sa place et son sujet, l’ilioupersis d’Enée), une épopée historique qui cherche à percer l’opacité du monde de la guerre civile, dans lequel les dieux ne sont plus anthropomorphes. Empruntant leur esthétique du déchiffrement du réel aux Piérides ovidiennes, ces poétesses humaines, rivales des divines Muses (Métamorphoses V), Lucain refonde alors la persona de son uates. Chantre d’un genre nouveau, pour une épopée renouvelée, le ‘piéridique’ uates du De bello ciuili qui ne peut plus être omniscient –puisque les pensées et les actions des superi lui sont inconnaissables- refuse le patronage des divinités traditionnelles de la poésie, promet à son ‘héros’ César, non la gloire mais l’exécration éternelle et proclame avec défi, qu’il ne devra lui-même l’éternité qu’à la seule puissance de son talent personnel, divines Muses et grands guerriers héroïques des œuvres du passé ayant été congédiés par la guerre civile. / The first two books of Lucan reveal an innovative use of direct speech in epic. Presented as contiguous speech triads – dialogs being impossible in the realm of De bello ciuili – whose purpose and genre are similar, they lead the ancient reader-listener, used to oral debates typical of declamation contests, to compare them. The investigation of two of these speech groups is our first step to a larger inquiry on rhetoric speech, then on poetic speech.Confronting the speech of the first triad (Curion/Caesar/Laelius in book I) reveals the end of traditional eloquence based on universal ethic values. It is superseded by a sophistic rhetoric that redefines (exclusively according to the speaker's private interests) whatever relates to law, justice or citizenship – problematic concepts in the perverse moral context of bellum ciuile. The efficiency of this new eloquence is highlighted by the success of the three suasory performances which cause the work's main narrative turns: Curion convinces Caesar to definitely take part to the civil war (book I), Cicero leads Pompeus to launch the battle at Pharsalia (book VII) and Pothinus persuades Ptolemy to murder Magnus (book VIII).Comparing the three prophetic speeches at the end of book I (which mirror the three speeches at the beginning of the following book), anxious complains of anonimous Romans (the women, the men and the elderly), we identify an ‘art of poetry’ aimed at motivating the generic choices made by the poet to handle his subject. Working along the lines of the human depravity of masses, he may not employ neither the tragic style (the speech of women) nor the epic celebration of heroes (the speech of men), but must suggest – as the old man remembers the past to anticipate the future (the longest speech of the epic reminds Eneas’ Ilioupersis by means of its place and subject) – an historical epic aiming at enlightening the opaque world of civil war, in which the gods are no longer anthropomorphic. Borrowing their deciphering aesthetic to Ovids’ Pierides, human female poets rivaling the godly Muses (Metamorphosis V), Lucan reinvents the persona of his uates. Promoting a new genre, for a renewed epic, the 'pieridic' uates of De Bello Ciuili, which can no longer be omniscient – since the superi's thoughts and deeds are out of his reach – refuses to worship the traditional poetry deities, swears to his 'hero' Caesar not the glory but the eternal hatred and defiantly proclaims that he himself will deserve eternity only through his own talent, the godly Muses and great heroic warriors of ancient works having been dismissed by civil war.