In economics there are two main domains of explanation for understanding unequal outcomes. The first considers differences in individual preferences, while the second concerns differences in how individuals are treated. Part I of the thesis comprises four articles pertaining to the first explanation. The main focus of these articles is gender differences in preference. The behaviors studied therein are risk preferences, competitiveness, altruism and cooperativeness. The first study finds no gender differences in performance under a competitive setting, across tasks with varying gender stereotyping. In the second study we find the gender gap in choosing to compete to be present only in the mathematical and not the verbal domain among adolescents. Moreover, its presence can largely be accounted for by other factors, such as performance beliefs. The third and fourth study compares children in Colombia and Sweden. In this sample there are no gender differences in Colombia, but in Sweden boys choose to compete more than girls. In risk-aversion however we find the gender gap to be larger in Colombia. Girls compared to boys also seem to be less cooperative in Colombia, whereas we find the opposite in Sweden. Part II comprises two articles relating to how individuals are treated by others. The first article explores how social status influences third party punishment. Punishment decisions made by male third parties in response to a norm violation are in this study found to be affected by both the social status and the gender of the judged individual. The second article investigates how transient anonymity interacts with discrimination in online markets. The results show buyer discrimination in the feedback system against male sellers with foreign-sounding names. This discrimination only occurs when sellers are anonymous; that is, if they chose not to reveal their name in their username.

Frågeställningar: Hur påverkas konsumtionen av digitala nyheter av individuella preferenser och ålder? Hur påverkas inställningen till digitala nyheter på olika utlämningsformer av individers preferenser och ålder? Syfte: Studiens syfte är att beskriva konsumtionen av digitala nyheter i olika åldersgrupper och att analysera konsumenters individuella preferenser gällande detta. Vidare är syftet att analysera de faktorer som påverkar konsumtionen av digitala nyheter. Ett delsyfte är även att beskriva och analysera olika åldersgruppers preferenser och inställning gällande olika utlämningsformer för digitala nyheter. Det slutliga syftet är att tillhandahålla rekommendationer till digitala nyhetsbyråer som de kan använda sig av för att tillmötesgå individers preferenser vid konsumtion av digitala nyheter. Metod: Studien har genomförts med en en induktiv ansats och en kvalitativ forskningsstrategi. Primärdata samlades genom intervjuer och fokusgrupper. Resultat och slutsatser: Utifrån studiens resultat drar vi slutsatsen att konsumtionen av digitala nyheter påverkas i större grad av individuella preferenser än ålder. Vidare identifierades påverkansfaktorer, där intresse påvisades vara en av de viktigaste. Respondenterna uppvisade en positiv inställning till mobila nyhetsapplikationer och sociala medier som utlämningsformer för digitala nyheter. Teoretiskt och praktiskt bidrag: Studien bidrar med åtta faktorer som påverkar konsumtionsmönstret av digitala nyheter. Vidare bidrar studien med en klargörelse av individuella preferenser gällande utlämningsformer för digitala nyheter. Studiens resultat kan sedan ligga till grund för hur digitala nyhetsbyråer kan tillmötesgå konsumenters preferenser.  Nyckelord: Konsumentbeteende, konsumtionsmönster, individuella preferenser, ålder, digitala nyheter / Research question: How is the consumption of digital news affected by individual preferences and age? How is the attitude towards digital news on different digital channels affected by individual preferences and age? Purpose: The purpose of the study is to describe the consumption of digital news in different age groups and to analyse consumers’ individual preferences regarding this. The purpose is furthermore to analyse factors influencing the consumption of digital news. It is also to describe and analyse different age groups preferences and attitudes towards news on different digital channels. The final purpose of the study is to provide digital news agencies with recommendations that they can use to meet individual preferences regarding the consumption of digital news. Method: The study is based on an inductive approach and a qualitative research method. The data has been collected through interviews and focus groups. Results and conclusions: Based on the study’s results we conclude that the consumption of digital news is affected to a greater extent by individual preferences than age. Furthermore factors that affect the consumption of news were identified, where interest was shown to be one of the most important factors. The respondents showed positive attitudes towards mobile news applications and social media as digital channels for news. Theoretical and practical contribution: The study contributes eight factors that affect the consumption of digital news. Furthermore the study clarifies different age groups attitudes towards news on different digital channels. The study’s results could form the basis for how digital news agencies can accommodate consumer preferences. Keywords: Consumer behaviour, Consumption pattern, individual preference, age, digital news

Cette thèse est consacrée à l’étude des implications de l’incertitude sur la politique environnementale. Le débat autour de l’incertitude s’est intensifié dans le contexte du changement climatique et de durabilité. De nombreuses études récentes examinant les politiques environnementales ont montré comment l’incertitude peut modifier les comportements économiques. La thèse contribue à cette littérature croissante sur l’incertitude et la politique environnementale. A cet effet, le chapitre 2 vise à présenter une nouvelle explication pour les trappes à pauvreté par la présence de la probabilité de catastrophe. Je présente un nouvel arbitrage entre les politiques d’adaptation et d’atténuation autres que l’arbitrage dynamique habituel mis en évidence dans de nombreuses études. De nombreux rapports récents des institutions internationales ont commencé à mettre en évidence l’importance de construire une économie de marché grâce à des innovations en R&D qui gèrent les investissements d’adaptation et d’atténuation. Le chapitre 3 construit un modèle de croissance schumpétérienne dans lequel les investisseurs gèrent les investissements d’adaptation et d’atténuation. Le chapitre 4 porte sur les préférences individuelles et la durabilité. Ce chapitre vise à montrer que le critère du développement durable peut ne pas être conforme aux décisions optimales dans un modèle économique avec une possibilité de catastrophe lorsqu’il existe des cycles limites (Hopf bifucation). Par conséquent, le critère devrait être révisé par les décideurs politiques pour inclure la possibilité des cycles limites. / This thesis is dedicated to the study the implications of uncertainty on the design of the environmental policy. The debate around the uncertainty has intensified in the context of the climate change and sustainability issues. Many recent studies focusing on the environmental policies started to show how the uncertainty component can change the optimal behavior. The thesis contributes to this recent growing literature of uncertainty and environmental policy.The Chapter 2 aims to present a new explanation for poverty traps, by the presence of catastrophe probability. I present a new trade-off between adaptation and mitigation policies other than the usual dynamic trade-off highlighted in many studies which is crucial for developing countries.Many recent policy reports of international institutions started to highlight how important is to build a market economy through R&D innovations that handles adaptation and mitigation investments. The Chapter 3 builds a Schumpeterian growth model in which investors handle the adaptation and mitigation investments. I also show the implications of a catastrophic event risk on investment decisions. The results suggest that the economy can increase investments in R&D even though there is a higher risk of a catastrophic event.The Chapter 4 focuses on the individual preferences and sustainability. This chapter aims to show that the Sustainable Development criterion can be not in conformity with the optimal decisions in an economic model when there are limit cycles (Hopf bifucation). Therefore, the criterion should be revised by policymakers to encompass the possibility of limit cycles.

La théorie économique standard postule que les préférences individuelles sont stables. Cependant, de nombreux résultats en psychologie et en économie expérimentale montrent que le comportement humain contrevient régulièrement à ce principe fondamental. Certains facteurs connus pour influencer la valeur, comme le contexte affectif, ne sont pas pris en compte en économie. Leurs effets sont encore considérés comme des phénomènes contingents– des anomalies en marge de la rationalité, qui en tant que telles n’informent pas la théorie. Aujourd’hui que l’imagerie cérébrale permet de formuler et tester de nouvelles hypothèses, nous interrogeons le caractère contingent de l’influence du contexte sur les préférences, avec en tête l’idée que ces « biais » découleraient de propriétés inhérentes à la structure physique qui génère le comportement, à savoir le cerveau. Parce qu’ils reflètent les conditions a priori de tout jugement de valeur, ils ne sont pas contingents mais nécessaires, ce qui explique leur prévalence. Notre première étude fait la preuve de cette hypothèse dans le cas des biais de contexte : nous montrons que l’inertie de l’activité cérébrale combinée à l’automaticité de l’évaluation permet d'expliquer les effets du contexte sur la valeur chez le singe et l’être humain. Notre deuxième étude montre que la confiance est codée dans la même région cérébrale que la valeur, suggérant que la peut être comprise comme un jugement de valeur de second ordre. Enfin, notre troisième étude montre un biais d’attribution comportemental menant à des interférences entre valeur et confiance, ce qui était prédit par la combinaison des résultats de la première et de la deuxième étude. / Standard economic theory postulates that individual preferences are stable. However, numerous psychology and experimental economics findings show this fundamental principle is often violated in actual human behavior. Some factors known to influence value, such as affective context, are not taken into account. Their effects are still considered contingent phenomena – anomalies observed on the margins of rationality – and as such do not inform economic theories. As modern neuroimaging techniques enable us to formulate and test new hypotheses, we propose to examine the contingent nature of this instability, in the light of the idea that these "biases" are in fact directly related to the inherent properties of the physical structure that generates behavior, namely the brain. Because they reflect the a priori conditions of any value judgment, they are not contingent but necessary, which explains their prevalence in observed behavior. Our first study proves this hypothesis in the case of context‐induced valuation biases: we show that the inertia of cerebral activity combined with the automaticity of evaluation can explain the effects of context on valuation in macaque monkeys and humans. Our second study shows that confidence is encoded in the same brain region as value in humans, suggesting that confidence judgments can be understood as second‐order value judgments. Our third study behaviorally demonstrates an attribution bias leading to interferences between value and confidence judgments, as predicted by combining the results of the first and the second study in humans.

La réduction de la consommation énergétique du secteur résidentiel constitue un enjeu majeur dans un contexte de transition énergétique et de lutte contre le changement climatique. Pourtant, malgré les politiques publiques en place, la consommation énergétique sectorielle française peine à baisser. À travers quatre essais empiriques, cette thèse s’intéresse aux obstacles à la baisse des consommations énergétiques dans le secteur résidentiel français en se focalisant sur le rôle des facteurs individuels. Dans le premier chapitre, qui s’inscrit dans la littérature sur le les barrières à l’investissement en efficacité énergétique et le « paradoxe énergétique » (Jaffe and Stavins, 1994), nous utilisons la méthode des choix discrets pour mettre en évidence le rôle de l’incertitude sur la qualité des travaux de rénovation et le prix de l’énergie comme barrière à l’investissement en efficacité énergétique. Le second chapitre fournit un éclairage empirique sur le rôle des facteurs socio-économiques, des préférences individuelles pour le confort et de la performance énergétique du logement pour expliquer la consommation énergétique résidentielle. Le troisième chapitre est l’occasion d’étudier l’écart de performance énergétique à l’échelle du logement (consommation énergétique réelle vs théorique) et ses déterminants individuels et socio-économiques, via la régression quantile. Enfin, le quatrième chapitre s’intéresse aux interactions dynamiques entre efficacité énergétique et consommation énergétique en traitant la question de l’effet rebond direct pour l’usage de chauffage résidentiel en France. / Reducing the energy consumption of the residential sector is a major stake in the context of the energy transition and the fight against climate change. However, despite the implementation of several dedicated public policies, the energy consumption of the sector has barely decreased in France. Through four empirical articles, this thesis aims to identify some of the barriers to the decrease of the French residential energy consumption with a focus on the role of individual determinants. In the first chapter, we wish to contribute to the literature on the barriers to energy efficiency investment (Sutherland, 1991) and the “energy efficiency gap” (Jaffe and Stavins, 1994). We use the methodology of the discrete choice experiment to assess the role of perceived risk and uncertainty on retrofit quality and energy price as barrier to the energy renovation decision. In the second chapter, we provide an empirical contribution on the role of individual preferences for comfort, other individual determinants and energy performance of dwellings in explaining energy consumption. In the third chapter, we study the energy performance gap (gap between theoretical and real energy consumption at dwelling level) and its drivers by using the quantile regression. Finally, in the fourth chapter, we test the assumption of the existence of a rebound effect for the heating energy consumption in France.

Made available in DSpace on 2014-12-17T14:10:17Z (GMT). No. of bitstreams: 1 ArmandoJBS.pdf: 422054 bytes, checksum: f4b2cbf7617b504553ea5eac8f22b533 (MD5) Previous issue date: 2008-05-27 / Female hawksbill turtles (Eretmochelys imbricata) nesting along the southeastcoastline of Rio Grande do Norte State, Brazil (6?13'40"S, 35?03'05"W) were captured and weighed during the four months from January to April 2007, in the course of the annual egglaying season, which extended from 06 rd November 2006 to 30 rd May 2007. In all, 99 weight measurements were performed. On first contact the females exhibited an average post-oviposition weight of 79.1 kg (range 56.2-98.9 kg, SD = 10.9 kg, n = 44 females). Those individuals which were subsequently recaptured showed a mean weight loss of 1.7 kg (range 0.7-4.5 kg, SD = 1.0 kg, n = 39 sets of measurements on 20 females) in the interval between two consecutive post-ovipositions, separated by a maximum time interval of 17 days. In the cases where the female aborted the nesting process, the pre-oviposition weight was measured. The clutch weight, that is to say, the weight loss between consecutive pre-oviposition and post-oviposition measurements (separated by a maximum time interval of 3 days), was found to be 5.2 kg (range 4.3-6.0 kg, SD = 0.9 kg, n = 6 sets of measurements). This value is significantly higher (t-test, p<0.001) than the loss between two consecutive post-oviposition measurements with the same female. The mean recovery in body weight, that is to say, the average gain in weight between successive post-oviposition and pre-oviposition captures of the same individual (separated by a time interval of 12 to 17 days), was found to be 3.0 kg (range 1.9-4.3 kg, SD = 1.0 kg, n = 4 sets of measurements) Although the small sample size makes it unwise to generalise, the recovery in body weight was found to be always significantly lower (t-test, p<0.005) than the clutch weight. This fact is in agreement with the observed weight loss tendency throughout the breeding season for this species. Considering the clutch weight and the internidal recovery in body weight we found that the total weight loss of the adult hawksbill females after three to five nesting events varied from 10.4% (range 8.7-11.9%, SD = 1.6%, n = 3) to 14.1% (range 11.8-15.4%, SD = 1.3%, n = 6) in relation to their initial pre-oviposition weight. If there were no body weight recovery during the internesting interval we estimate that a female that nests three to five times in the course of the season would lose from 19% to 31% of its initial weight. We emphasise that our clutch weight estimate was performed by weighing the females and not by multiplying the number of eggs in the nest by their average unit weight. In this way, our measurements take into account the loss of liquid during the oviposition. Despite the unequivocal evidence of body weight recovery during the internidal interval, it is not clear if the cause of this process is rehydration or feeding / Os dados que comp?em esta disserta??o, est?o organizados em dois cap?tulos que correspondem a dois artigos cient?ficos a serem submetidos ? publica??o. O primeiro, Body weight and energy budget of gravid hawksbill turtles (Eretmochelys imbricata) during the nest season est? sendo submetido ao Journal of Herpetology e o segundo intitulado Prefer?ncias individuais por local de desova em Eretmochelys imbricata (LINNAEUS, 1756), na Praia de Pipa, Tibau do Sul, RN

Cette thèse se propose d’étudier l’existence de freins au développement du marché privé de l’assurance dépendance en France. Nous étudions ici tour à tour trois candidats dans l’explication de ce faible développement : les préférences individuelles, les comportements d’auto-assurance et la myopie des agents. Pour cela, nous exploitons les enquêtes « Préférences et Patrimoine vis-à-vis du risque et du temps » et « Santé et protection sociale » qui ont toutes deux introduit des modules spécifiques dépendance dans les vagues d’enquêtes mobilisées dans cette thèse. Nos analyses économétriques confirment le rôle d’obstacle de ces trois déterminants de la demande d’assurance dépendance. Si l’existence d’une mauvaise perception du risque dépendance plaide pour l’intervention de l’Etat dans la relation des français à la planification de leurs pertes d’autonomie, le rôle des préférences individuelles et les comportements d’auto-assurance mis en évidence dans cette thèse révèle un choix économiquement rationnel de ne pas recourir à une assurance dépendance. / This thesis aims at better understanding long-term care insurance puzzle. Three determinants of the long-term care insurance market low development are studied here: individual preferences, self-insurance and myopia. To do so, we use two surveys that have introduced dependency-specific modules: “Preferences and patrimony against time and risk” and “Health Care and Insurance”. The results highlight the role of these three determinants of long-term care insurance demand in the low development of the market. If myopia advocate for a government intervention in French citizens long-term care planning, the impact of individual preference and self-insurance behaviors suggest that the nonpurchase of long-term care policies is economically rational.

Les enquêtes préférences déclarées (EPD) reposent sur des mises en situation hypothétiques. Face à une situation de choix construite de toute pièce par l’analyste, chaque répondant doit déclarer le choix qu’il ferait s’il y était confronté en réalité. Chaque situation se présente comme la combinaison de plusieurs paramètres. Face à chacune des diverses situations qui lui sont présentées successivement, l’enquêté va devoir faire le choix de celles lui convenant le mieux. Au fil du questionnaire, ses réponses révèleront l’importance qu’il donne à chaque paramètre et contribueront à une meilleure appréhension de ses préférences et de ses choix. Ce travail s’articule autour de trois études de cas mises en œuvre dans le cadre d’études menées par des opérateurs de transport (SNCF – thème : réforme de tarification sociale), des gestionnaires d’infrastructure (RFF – thème : effets du cadencement sur l’attractivité du train) ou des organismes de recherche (LET et PREDIT – thème : impact de politiques de rationnement du carburant sur la mobilité automobile). L’objet de ces études nécessitait la mise en œuvre d’enquêtes préférences déclarées. La conception, la mise en œuvre et l’analyse des EPD ont été réalisées dans le cadre de cette thèse avec un soucis permanent de contrôle de chacun des paramètres en vue de garantir la qualité des résultats obtenus.Selon les objectifs de l’étude, des traitements économétriques divers ont été utilisés pour analyser les données récoltées.Finalement, chacune de ces mises en place a contribué à renforcer notre conviction que les EPD constituent un outil complet. Ce travail contribue finalement, à son échelle, à crédibiliser un peu plus les méthodes de préférences déclarées et invite à repositionner cet outil d’analyse comme pivot de toute réflexion complexe dont le protocole est à réinventer lors de chaque construction, plutôt que tel qu’un procédé connu, livré clé en main, dont l’application suit une logique mécanique. / Stated preference surveys are based on choice sets composed by the analyst and proposed to some respondents. Each situation of the choice set is the combination of pre-determined attributes. While declaring the choice they would make if they were confronted to the same situation in reality, respondents reveal their preferences and their perceptions of the attributes.This Phd work presents the results of three stated preference surveys applied in the camp of public transportation. All surveys form a part of more general research programs handled for the sake: of the French railway operator, known as the SNCF (2006/2007) ; of the French railway network administrator, called RFF (2008) ; and of the French research, experimentation and innovation program in land transport, named PREDIT (2010). The use of stated preference methodology was required in order to deal efficiently with the issues of each of those research programs (respectively treating of social pricing ; train supply policy ; fuel rationing policies). The conception, the implementation and the analysis of the surveys have all been carried out during this Phd work in order to warranty control of each parameter and thus high quality results.In accordance with program research objectives, different econometrics treatments have been implemented.This Phd work shows how stated preference surveys may deal with different complex issues and therefore promote the use of this method. Each of these studies have finally strengthened the conviction that stated preferences constitute an efficient and complete tool.

This thesis explores the entire cycle of education, from initial access to schooling, over degree completion, to returns to education. Despite recent gains in increasing access, an tens of millions of children worldwide are still out of school. Abolishing school fees has increased enrollment rates in several countries where enrollments were low and fees were high. However, such policies may be less effective, or even have negative consequences, when supply-side responses are weak. The first part of the thesis evaluates the impacts of a tuition waiver program in Haiti, which provided public financing to nonpublic schools conditional on not charging tuition. The chapter concludes that school's participation in the program results in more students enrolled, more staff, and slightly higher student-teacher ratios. The program also reduces grade repetition and the share of overage students. While the increase in students does not directly equate to a reduction in the number of children out of school, it does demonstrate strong demand from families for the program and a correspondingly strong supply response from the nonpublic sector.Pertaining degree completion, it is well established that natural disasters can have a negative effect on human capital accumulation. However, a comparison of the differential impacts of distinct disaster classes is missing. Using census data and information from DesInventar and EMDAT, two large disaster databases, the second part of the thesis assesses how geological disasters and climatic shocks affect the upper secondary degree attainment of adolescents. The chapter focuses on Mexico, given its diverse disaster landscape and lack of obligatory upper secondary education over the observed time period. While all disaster types are found to impede attainment, climatic disasters that are not infrastructure-destructive (e.g. droughts) have the strongest negative effect, decreasing educational expansion by over 40%. The effects seem largely driven by demand-side changes such as increases in school dropouts and fertility, especially for young women. The results may also be influenced by deteriorated parental labor market outcomes. Supply-side effects appear to be solely driven by infrastructure-destructive climatic shocks (e.g. floods). These findings thus call for differential public measures according to specific disaster types and an enhanced attention to climatic events given their potentially stronger impact on younger generations.It is also widely appreciated that natural disasters can have negative impacts on local labor market outcomes. However, the study of differential types of negative capital shocks, the underlying labor market mechanisms, and the context of the poorest countries have been neglected. Following testable predictions of economic theory, the third part of the thesis exploits the exogenous variation of destruction of human and physical capital caused by the 2010 Haiti earthquake to disentangle the differential impact on local individual monetary returns to education. Employing individual-level survey data from before and after the earthquake the chapter finds that the returns decreased on average by 37%, especially in equipment-capital intensive industry. Higher educated individuals adjust into low-paying self-employment or agriculture. The returns are particularly shock-sensitive for urban residents, migrants, males, and people over age 25. / Doctorat en Sciences économiques et de gestion / info:eu-repo/semantics/nonPublished