Denna studie utforskar klimatpåverkan och kostnadseffektivitet av två byggtekniker för ett tänkt småhus i Uppsala. Studien gör en jämförelse mellan prefabricerade strukturella isolerande paneler (SIP) med expanderad polystyrenisolering (EPS) gentemot en träregelkonstruktion med mineralullsisolering. Syftet är att jämföra deras miljöpåverkan och ekonomiska aspekter genom livscykelanalys (LCA) och livscykelkostnadsanalys (LCC) specifikt för byggnader. Studien är strikt inriktad på byggskedet A1-A5, vilket inkluderar både produktsskedet A1-A3 och byggproduktionsskedet A4-A5. Med A1-A3 avses framställningen av byggmaterial, medan A4-A5 innefattar användningen av dessa material i byggprocessen. Studien även granskar specifika materialval och standardtjocklekar för SIP med EPS och ifall dessa tjocklekar stämmer med allmänna standarder för byggnadsverk. Denna utnyttjar användningen av moderna mjukvaror för att förenkla beräkningarna av LCA och LCC inom byggbranschen. Vi valde att använda programvaran One Click LCA. Programmet används för att genomföra hållbarhetsanalyser, hållbarhetsanalyser skiljer sig från LCA genom sitt bredare fokus på hållbarhetsaspekter, inklusive sociala och ekonomiska dimensioner, utöver de rent miljömässiga faktorer som LCA fokuserar på. Programvaran baseras på en omfattande databas av byggnadsmaterial och deras miljövarudeklarationer (EPD), vilket underlättar beräkningen av en byggnads totala miljöpåverkan.   Studien indikerar att konstruktionen med träregelkonstruktionen producerar ett lägre koldioxidutsläpp i jämförelse med konstruktioner byggd av SIP med EPS. De ökade utsläppen för SIP-konstruktionen är huvudsakligen ett resultat av transportavståndet och de betydande koldioxidekvivalenterna under produktionsstadiet. När det gäller koldioxidutsläpp visar data att SIP-konstruktionen har en större miljöpåverkan, med 238 kg CO2e/m2 Atemp (uppvärmda arean av huset), jämfört med träregelkonstruktionen som genererar 162 kg CO2e/m2 Atemp.   Ekonomiskt är SIP-konstruktionen i studien mer kostsam än träregelkonstruktionen. Det finns en kostnadsökning på 22,3% för SIP-konstruktionen jämfört med träregelkonstruktionen. Kostnaden för SIP-konstruktionen uppgår till 6022 kr/m2 Atemp, medan träregelkonstruktionen kostar 4678 kr/m2 Atemp. Denna ökning kan främst hänföras till högre material- och transportkostnader för SIP-elementen. Studien betonar vikten av att balansera ekonomiska och miljömässiga faktorer vid val av byggteknik och den framhäver potentialen att fortsätta utforska och förbättra byggnadsmaterial och byggprocesser för att göra byggsektorn mer hållbar, vilket inbegriper att minska klimatpåverkan från material som EPS-isolering och OSB-skivor (som är en skiva tillverkad av sammanpressade träspån och lim), samt utforska alternativa material såsom polyuretan (PU foam). / This study explores the climate impact and cost effectiveness of two building techniques for a single-family house in Uppsala: Structural Insulated Panels (SIP) with EPS insulation compared with a timber frame with mineral wool insulation. The purpose is to assess their environmental impact and economic aspects through life cycle analysis (LCA) and life cycle cost analysis (LCC). The study encompasses the stages of LCA and LCC named as the production stage and the construction production stage for these techniques. The 'production stage' refers to the manufacturing of building materials, while the 'construction phase' involves using these materials in the building process.  This study takes advantage of modern analysis software to ease the process of performing LCA and LCC analyses. We have decided to use the software One Click LCA to simplify the LCA process and perform sustainability analyses. A sustainability analysis differs from LCA by its broader focus on sustainability aspects, including social and economic dimensions, in addition to the purely environmental factors that LCA focuses on. The software is based on an extensive database of building materials and their environmental product declarations (EPD), which facilitates calculating a building's total environmental impact. The study indicates that constructions with timber frames produce lower carbon dioxide emissions compared to those using SIP constructions.  In terms of carbon dioxide emissions, the data show that SIP construction has a greater environmental impact, with 238 kg CO2e/m2 Atemp, compared to timber frame construction, which generates 162 kg CO2e/m2 Atemp. Economically, SIP construction is more costly than timber frame. There is a cost increase of 22.3% for the SIP construction compared to the timber frame construction. The cost of the SIP construction amounts to 6022 SEK/m2 Atemp, while the timber frame construction costs 4678 SEK/m2 Atemp. This increase is mainly attributable to higher material and transport costs for the SIP construction. The study emphasizes the importance of balancing economic and environmental factors in the choice of building technology. It also highlights the potential to continue exploring and improving building materials and construction processes to make the construction sector more sustainable, including reducing the climate impact from materials like EPS insulation and OSB boards, and exploring alternative materials such as polyurethane (PU foam).

This report has been carried out together with Bonava with the purpose to investigate the difference in climate impact and cost of both concrete and wooden frames in apartment buildings. This to investigate if it is profitable to build climate smart. To perform this, a life cycle analysis and a life cycle cost analysis were performed on two frames of different materials; a wooden frame called "Nästet 3" and a concrete frame called "Kv. Smugglaren”. The results of the life cycle analysis shows that the wooden frame “Nästet 3” has less climate impact in comparison to the concrete frame “Kv. Smugglaren”. The wooden frame had a total emission of 176 tons of CO2e which is about 65 kg CO2e per square meter of gross area. The result of the life cycle analysis on the concrete frame “Kv. Smugglaren” showed a climate impact of 793 tons of CO2e, which approximately is 229 kg CO2e per square meter of gross area. This study shows that a concrete frame in apartment buildings has a greater climate impact than a wooden frame. The results of the life cycle cost analysis shows that the wooden frame “Nästet 3” has the lowest frame material cost, about half as much as the concrete frame “Kv. Smugglaren”. However, it has the largest total construction cost, approximately 0.8% larger than the concrete frame. When all results are compared, it can be concluded that it does not necessarily cost more to build with more climate-smart materials. Using wood as a frame material is both more climate-smart and cheaper than concrete.

In a world with unlimited travel options, railways play a key role in transportation. In order to serve the demand at a satisfactory level, it is important that the infrastructure quality remains high and safe. Maintenance is then the most important aspect of railway infrastructure.  This project’s aim is to develop a tool that would evaluate the cost differences and maintenance needs during the life cycle of turnouts, bent with different radii to straight, as a crucial part of the infrastructure, not only technically but also financially. When the cost over a life cycle is provided then design decisions can get more efficient.  Maintenance history of seven years of preventive and corrective maintenance data from databases Bessy and 0felia for single turnouts across the Swedish rail network were studied, analysed and evaluated.  Along with information from interviews with key informants the cost driving parameters were specified. The calculator was developed in Microsoft Excel, giving results for bent turnouts in 4 different radii categories and the respective straight turnouts. An EV-UIC60-760-1:14 turnout was used as a case study for different radii categories and 3 different scenarios were run in order to test the robustness of the tool.  The results showed that bent turnouts have a higher life cycle cost than straight in the order of 1 to 3 mkr depending on the radius, the bigger share of which is usually the preventive maintenance cost, with the specifics to vary between the categories and different scenarios tested. The way maintenance data are registered and classified plays an important role in the analysis.

Lightweight cellular concrete (LCC) is a type of concrete that has reduced density and weight compared to traditional concrete. This is achieved by incorporating a large amount of air- filled cells or voids into the mixture. The resulting material is lighter, yet still possesses considerable strength and durability, making it suitable for a range of construction applications, especially in the case of retaining walls because of its reduced weight. Unlike traditional concrete, which can be extremely heavy and place significant stress on the supporting structure, lightweight cellular concrete reduces the pressure on the retaining wall, helping to prevent deformation and failure. Additionally, the reduced weight of the material can also simplify construction processes and make it easier to transport and handle, reducing the cost and labor required to build a retaining wall. The reduced weight also makes it possible to build taller walls with less settlement in the underlying compressible layers, which can be especially beneficial in areas with utility lines sensitive to displacement. Despite these advantages, limited research has been performed on the use of LCC as a backfill for retaining wall applications. This report provides new test data on the pullout resistance of ribbed-strip and welded-wire mesh reinforcements at high pressures. The pullout tests at high pressures were conducted in which four test prisms (2 ft wide x 10 ft long x 2' tall) that were filled with LCC with welded-wire mesh reinforcement on one side and ribbed strip reinforcement on the other. These boxes were loaded with vertical confining pressures of 40, 50, and 60 psi and subjected to a pullout force on the reinforcement until failure. These results were then combined with results from previous BYU tests at lower pressures to define pullout resistance factors, F* (friction coefficients) for MSE reinforcements over a full range of pressures. Finally, the pullout resistance of MSE reinforcements were used in slope stability models to back-calculate the F* values that would lead to failure at the surcharge pressures measured in three previous large-scale tests conducted on 10 ft wide x 10 ft tall x 13 ft long blocks of LCC at BYU. Very good agreement was obtained between the computed F* at failure and the measured F* values confirming the validity of this approach for engineering design in the future involving global stability MSE wall stability under surcharge loading.

Yes / The importance of evaluation and optimization of electronic government (e-government) services is imperative if the government organisations are to have an effective impact on the success and take-up of the services offered. Transport For London's (TFL) London Congestion Charging (LCC) is one of the innovative electronic services (e-services) introduced by the United Kingdom (UK) government to the citizens. While some studies have addressed the impact of the introduction of the congestion charge there has been a dearth of research performed to address user (citizen) satisfaction of the online LCC system. Therefore, this research seeks to measure the citizen satisfaction of using the LCC online payment system offered by TFL. The citizen satisfaction in this context is measured using the four dimensions from the COBRA framework that comprise the cost, opportunity, benefits and risk assessment constructs. This paper presents the findings of a survey of 500 users of the TFL LCC online payment system. It also reports the qualitative feedback obtained from the participants that can be used to determine the areas that need further improvement in the current LCC e-service and potential influences on user satisfaction.

Inom tillgångsförvaltning av järnvägsinfrastruktur finns ofta flera tekniska lösningar för att realisera en viss funktion. Examensarbetet visar på hur beslutsunderlag kan framställas genom att jämföra olika tekniska lösningar med varandra baserat på livscykelkostnadsanalys (LCC-analys). Beslutsunderlaget syftar till att skapa en bättre förståelse för hur en högre samhällsekonomisk effektivitet kan uppnås. Den kapacitetshöjande funktionen samtidig infart har studerats. Funktionen bidrar till snabbare och smidigare tågmöten . Arbetet avgränsades till enkelspårig järnväg och driftplatser med två spår. Examensarbetet avsedde att besvara: Hur kan alternativa tekniska lösningar för funktionen samtidig infart inom järnväg jämföras med varandra genom livscykelkostnadsanalys? I examensarbetet behandlades Malmbanan som är i stort behov av kapacitetshöjande åtgärder. Trafiken sker mestadels med tungt lastade långa tåg, vilket i kombination många spårväxlar är uttjänta gör att tågmöten tar tid. Ett referensfall med en driftplats baserad utifrån Malmbanans förutsättningar formulerades. Utifrån det presenterade referensfallet utformades fyra alternativa tekniska lösningar för hur funktionen samtidig infart kunde realiseras. Dessa alternativ jämfördes sinsemellan genom LCC-analys. LCC-analys visade sig vara en effektiv metod för att jämföra de olika tekniska lösningarna med varandra. Det eftersom ett kvantitativt beslutsunderlag som beaktade hela livscykeln kunde erhållas. Resultatet visade hur de olika alternativa tekniska lösningarna förhöll sig till varandra med hänsyn till dess LCC, samt i förlängningen vilket alternativ som ansågs ge högst samhällsekonomisk effektivitet med avseende på given situation. Slutligen bör även den metodikkunskap som arbetet lagt grund för beaktas i fortsatt tillämpning. Arbetssättet med LCC-analys anses vara en effektiv metod när olika alternativa investeringsåtgärder ska jämföras med varandra.

The construction industry in Sweden face increasing demands for sustainability and reduced greenhouse gas emissions and with the introduction of climate declarations for new projects marking a significant development. There is a rising interest in sustainable materials like cross laminated timber (CLT). Analyzing CLT-joists and their complementary materials impact on projects economically, environmentally, and structural performance can enhance decision-making in the early stages of a project. This study conducted a structural-, climate impact-, and cost analysis along with a multicriteria assessment. The structural analysis, based on Eurocodes and using the software FEM-design showed that all joist types met structural requirements, with type 3 being more versatile due to its cooperation with concrete. It also showed that type 11 with its lighter weight made it easier for installations and a possible reduced transport emission. The climate impact analysis, done through an LCA in OneClick LCA, revealed that type 3 had the highest impact mainly due to its concrete layer, while type 9 had the lowest impact. In term of costs, a cost analysis was done with the use of BidCon. The results of the cost analysis showed that type 3 is the most expensive due to its longer installation time and material costs, while type 11 was the cheapest. CLT and concrete were identified as the costliest materials. The multicriteria assessment concluded that type 11 is preferred for its affordability, sustainability, and performance efficiency. However, if solely pursuing sustainability, type 9 could be considered despite its slightly higher costs.

Sustainability assessment and decision-making is a complex task for companies and considering the new requirements of the Corporate Sustainability Reporting Directive, there will be an increased demand on companies to make sure that their impact on the environment and people is assessed. In alignment with these new requirements, this study aims to combine three methods; LCA, S-LCA, and LCC, also known as LCSA, to investigate the environmental-, social- and cost impact of a safety barrier called SVEA. This has been done in collaboration with Ramudden and Worxsafe who are the developers of SVEA. By combining these three methods the goal is to identify hotspots throughout the lifecycle to see where mitigations can be made to make SVEA even more adapted for a ‘green’ future. The environmental hotspots that have been identified are global warming potential and abiotic depletion. These were further interpreted in the discussion which shows that several improvements are possible in the life cycle of SVEA. These improvements are related to the concrete and steel that SVEA consists of. For the S-LCA, several social improvements for health and safety and the gap between employed men/women were further discussed and interpreted. Additionally, a “partial LCC” was applied in order to create an understanding of the possible trade-offs between environmental and social benefits and the cost of different improvement possibilities. The results showed that the suggested improvements can also provide economic advantages. Lastly, one big takeaway from this thesis is that the combination of LCA, S-LCA, and LCC is a promising method to reach a more holistic assessment of the three pillars of sustainable development, which can also help deal with the complexity of the new corporate sustainability reporting directive. However, as noticed when conducting this thesis, more harmonization and standardization of these three methods is still required to create a more effective and valuable implementation for companies and create a bigger foundation for LCSA.

The content of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere is increasing resulting in climate change and efforts to stop the negative trend need to be intensified. The energy use in the Swedish residential and service sector constitutes 40 % of the total energy use of 378 TWh in the country. Nationally there is a target to reduce the energy use per heated area with 20 % to 2020 and 50 % to 2050. Energy renovation of buildings from the Million Programme is foreseen to be able to contribute to achieving the targets owing to the large building stock and energy efficiency potential. In the master thesis cost optimal energy renovation strategies are investigated for two multi-family buildings in Linkoping built during the Million Programme, one with an unheated attic and one with a heated attic. The thesis is carried out by using life-cycle cost optimisation (LCC-optimisation) by utilising the software OPERA-MILP, developed at Linkoping University. The aim of the thesis is to obtain the energy renovation strategy that is optimal from an LCC-perspective and to investigate the energy reduction and LCC. Optimal energy renovation strategies are also investigated for energy renovation to levels of the Energy Classes of the National Board of Housing, Building and Planning in Sweden and the stricter limits for nearly zero-energy buildings (NZEB) that will likely come into force in 2021. Greenhouse gas emissions and primary energy use are also investigated for the different cases with the purpose of putting energy renovation in relation to climate impact. Local environmental factors are used for district heating while electricity is assigned values based on the Nordic electricity mix and Nordic marginal electricity respectively. The current LCC and annual energy use is 2 945 kSEK and 133 MWh for the building with an unheated attic and 3 511 kSEK and 162 MWh for the building with a heated attic. The result shows that LCC can be reduced by approximately 70 kSEK and 90 kSEK respectively. The optimal solution constitutes of a window change from windows with U=3,0 W/m2°C to windows with U=1,5 W/m2°C and results in a reduction of the energy use by 13 % and 15 % respectively. LCC increases with 240 kSEK for the building with unheated attic and decreases with 18 kSEK for the other building when Energy Class D is reached. Energy Class C is attained through an increase in LCC by 300 – 590 kSEK and Energy Class B through an increase by 1610 – 1800 kSEK. It is not possible to reach Energy Class A or the future requirements for NZEB (55 kWh/m2Aheated) with the energy renovation measures that are implemented in OPERA-MILP. The largest energy reduction that can be attained is approximately 60 %. The most cost optimal insulation measure is additional insulation of the attic floor/pitched roof followed by additional insulation of the ground concrete slab. It was shown to be more cost efficient to change to windows with U=1,5 W/m2°C in combination with additional insulation compared to changing to windows with better energy performance. For greater energy savings additional insulation on the inside of the external wall is applied, while insulation on the outside of the external wall is never cost optimal. To reach Energy Class B installation of HRV is required which gives a large increase in cost. Less extensive energy renovation is needed to reach the energy classes for the building with heated attic compared to the building with unheated attic. The annual use of primary energy in the reference case is 22 MWh for the building with an unheated attic and 26 MWh for the building with a heated attic. The emissions of greenhouse gases are 18 tonnes CO2e and 22 tonnes CO2e per year respectively when the emission factor of the Nordic electricity mix is applied and 20 tonnes CO2e and 25 tonnes CO2e respectively when the Nordic marginal electricity is applied. The yearly primary energy use can be reduced with up to 7 MWh through energy renovation. When the energy renovation leads to an increase in electricity use the primary energy can however increase with up to 12 MWh. The yearly greenhouse gas emissions can be decreased with up to 14 tonnes CO2e. When Nordic marginal electricity is applied to estimate the emissions of greenhouse gases for an energy renovation strategy that leads to an increase in electricity use the result is less beneficial from a climate perspective compared to when Nordic electricity mix is applied.

Syfte: Det finns en stor brist på kunskap om att översätta klimatpåverkan till ett monetärt värde. Forskare har under flera decennium studerat och forskat inom området och tagit fram flera metoder och verktyg inom LCC (Livscykelkostnad). Forskarna frågar sig varför inte dessa används i branschen? Målet med denna studie är att ta fram ett arbetssätt för att med hjälp av LCA (Livscykelanalys) utföra en LCC med invägd miljökostnad. Metod: De metoder som används för att nå målet med arbetet är mailintervjuer, observationer, dokumentanalys och litteraturstudie. Resultat: Arbetet beskriver att kommunala bostadsbolag inte använder sig av LCC i någon större utsträckning. En fallstudie har utförts på två hus i Kv. Vingpennan 2 i Kungsängen. Arbetet presenterar utifrån fallstudien, ett arbetssätt där miljökostnad översätts till ett monetärt värde med hjälp av LCA och LCC. Konsekvenser: Eftersom kommunala bostadsbolag inte arbetar med LCC analyser i den utsträckning som skulle behövas i nuläget skulle någon form av krav från kommun kunna bli aktuellt. Byggnation som är en stor koldioxidbov skulle behöva en sådan typ av krav, i form av till exempel en koldioxidskatt som räknas fram i början av varje nytt byggprojekt. Orsakerna varför inte LCC används i någon större utsträckning är många. Osäkerhetsfaktorerna för uppskattning av ett monetärt värde för miljöpåverkan inom LCC anses vara en bidragande orsak. Om dessa krav som detta arbete föreslår skulle ställas på beslutsfattarna då tvingas de att lära sig att arbeta aktivt med LCC. Den nya ISO standarden 14008:2019 kan vara en början till fungerande arbetsmetoder med LCC där miljökostnaden kan räknas fram. Begränsningar: Val av metoder och strategier har varit passande för detta arbete. Det som dels har begränsat resultatet är att fallstudien endast pågått en kort tid i projektet Kv. Vingpennan 2 och dels att det finns olika LCA-verktyg på marknaden. Innehållet i dessa LCA-program kan ha begränsat arbetet då de inte är exakta med verkligheten. De osäkerhetsfaktorer som finns i en LCC analys kan göra att den som utför analysen kan tolka de olika faktorerna på olika sätt och därför få olika resultat. / Purpose: There is a lack of knowledge of translating environmental cost to a monetary value. Sientcis has during the last decades studied and researched the field and developed several methods and tools within the Life cycle cost (LCC). The researchers are wondering why these are not used in the industry? The goal in this study is to develop a working method on how to build better for the climate using Life cycle assessment (LCA) and LCC. Method: The methods used to reach the goal of the study are mail interviews, observations, document analysis and literature review. Findings: The result of the study describes that municipal housing companies do not use LCC a lot. A case study is done on two houses in Kv. Vingpennan 2 in Kungsängen, Jönköping. The study presents, based on the case study a method for working with LCC with a environmental cost translated into a monetary value by using LCA. Implications: Since municipal housing companies at present do not work with LCC analyses to the extent that would be needed, some kind of demands from the municipality could be relevant. The construction sector is emitting a lot of carbon dioxide that is why some kind of tax should be calculated in the beginning of a new building project. There are many reasons why LCC is not so much in use. The uncertainty factors for estimating a monetary value for the environmental cost within the LCC might be a contributing factor. If the requirements that we propose would be put to the decision makers they would be forced to learn how to and work with LCC. The new ISO standard 14008:2019 could be the beginning of work methods for LCC where the environmental cost could be calculated. Limitations: The choice of methods and strategies for this study has been appropriate. The limitation is that the case study has only been studied over a shorter time of the studied projects time and that there is a lot of different programs for making a LCA and the materials in those programs is not always the exact same as in the real project. The uncertainties in an LCC could make the results variate a lot depending on who makes it.