Studies assessing the electricity generation cost of various power generating technologies are becoming increasingly common and references to such studies can often be heard in the public debate. Different studies do however often present significantly different results. This is a problem as electricity generation cost assessments are important when it comes to choosing and designing future energy systems. In this thesis, existing electricity generation cost assessments are reviewed and issues and differences with current methodologies are investigated. As many of the reviewed studies lack detailed sensitivity analyses, an electricity generation cost model has been implemented in order to shed some light on the sensitivity in the produced results. The thesis shows that different methodological approaches and assumptions have a significant impact on electricity generation cost results. The habit of generalising electricity generation costs in a public context can also be questioned. Generation costs tend to be site-specific and sensitive to changes in input parameters. Another finding is that current methodologies are not suitable for comparing intermittent and dispatchable power generating technologies. The reasons are missing electricity system cost perspective and failure to account for differences in production profiles.

In 2014 the Cuban government announced that 24% of the country’s generated electricity will come from renewable energy sources by 2030. In Cuba the emissions have drastically risen over the past decade due to the increasing amount of electricity demand. Today most of the generated electricity is produced by burning oil. To achieve this goal before 2030 major investments in renewable energy will be required. There is also a big concern in Cuba about climate change, as Cuba’s geographical position is very vulnerable to drastic weather changes. This drive efforts towards a more sustainable society, in addition to the economic aspect of being independent of imported oil.   The objective of the study is to evaluate the economical, ecological and social profitability of PV systems in Cuba. The main purpose will consist of making economic and technical calculations using the software Matlab (version R2016a) for the installation of the PV system on the building most suitable at The University of Havana. The study will consider both a PV system with and without energy storage. The PV module that will be investigated in this study is the crystalline silicone cells, since this is the most common used in PV system in Cuba. This is to enable for the university to become partly or completely independent from the electricity generated by the government owned electricity company (UNE). It is important for the university to become independent from the national electricity grid due to the high number of power-cuts and since the electricity company in Cuba regulates how much electricity that can be consumed each month. The project will consider both economic, ecological and social aspects to find the best solution for the installation of PV system at The University of Havana.   The study showed that the most suitable building for a PV system installation is the building of Institute of Science and Technology of Materials. All three orientations examined in this study cover the electricity consumption during an average day and can work as a backup system. The result concluded that the most economical and optimized installation, taking into account the desired function of the PV system for the building of IMRE is an incline angle of 20°, 270 number of installed PV modules and an orientation towards south if installing a PV system with energy storage. The excess electricity from the PV system has assumed to be used for recharging the battery or sold back to the grid for same price as the private PV companies sell electricity for, 0,06-0,07 USD/kWh. It was concluded that the cost of generated electricity from a PV system installed at The University of Havana is 5,5-32,5 % cheaper with battery and without battery the cost is 47,8-62,7 % cheaper than current price of generated electricity at 0,15-0,21 USD/kWh. The result from this study complements other studies done and validates that also smaller PV systems are economical profitable in Cuba. This study has shown that it is economic, ecological and social profitable to install a PV system at The University of Havana. / År 2014 meddelade den kubanska regeringen att 24 % av landets elproduktion ska vid år 2030 komma från förnybara energikällor. På Kuba har utsläppen ökat drastiskt under det senaste decenniet på grund av den ökande efterfrågan på el. Idag produceras majoriteten av den genererade elen från olja och för att uppnå målet om en ökad mängd förnybara energikällor före år 2030 krävs stora investeringar. Det finns en stor oro på Kuba kring klimatförändringarna, på grund av att landets geografiska position är mycket sårbar för drastiska väderförändringar. Detta driver ansträngningarna mot ett mer hållbart samhälle, utöver den ekonomiska aspekten att vara oberoende av importerad olja.   Syftet med studien är att utvärdera PV-systemets ekonomiska, ekologiska och sociala lönsamhet på Kuba. Huvudsyftet kommer att bestå av att göra ekonomiska och tekniska beräkningar med softwareprogrammet Matlab (version 2016a) för installation av PV-systemet på de byggnader som anses lämpligast att installera på. Studien kommer att utvärdera både ett PV-system med och utan energilagring. I denna studie är de kristallina silikoncellerna som tillämpas eftersom dessa är de mest förekommande på Kuba. Installation av ett PV system kommer kunna göra det möjligt för universitetet att bli helt eller delvis oberoende av den el som genereras av det statligt ägda elbolaget (UNE). Det är viktigt för universitetet att bli oberoende av det nationella elnätet på grund av det stora antalet strömavbrott som existerar idag och eftersom Kubas elbolag reglerar hur mycket el som kan konsumeras varje månad. Projektet kommer att överväga både ekonomiskt, sociala och ekologiska aspekter för att finna den bästa lösningen för installation av ett PV-system vid Havannas Universitet.   Studien visade att den lämpligaste byggnaden för en installation av PV-system är på en av byggnaderna som tillhör Institute of Science and Technology of Materials. Alla tre orienteringar för en installation som undersöktes i denna studie täcker elförbrukningen under en genomsnittlig dag och kan även fungera som ett backupsystem. Resultatet visade att den mest ekonomiska och optimala installationen med hänsyn till PV-systemets önskvärda funktion för byggnaden, är en lutningsvinkel på 20 °, en installation på 270 PV-moduler och med en orientering mot söder om PV-systemet installeras med energilagring. Överskottselen från PV systemet har antagits att användas till att ladda upp batterierna eller säljas tillbaka till nätet för samma pris som för privata solcellsföretag säljer för, 0,06–0,07 USD/kWh. Slutsatsen för kostnaden för genererad el från ett PV-system installerat vid Havannas Universitet är att det blir 5,5–32,5% billigare med batteri och utan batteri är kostnaden 47,8–62,7% billigare än nuvarande elproduktion i landet, 0,15-0,21 USD/kWh. Resultatet av denna studie kompletterar andra studier som gjorts och validerar att även mindre installation av PV-system är ekonomiskt lönsamma på Kuba. Denna studie har visat att det är ekonomiskt, ekologiskt och socialt lönsamt att installera ett PV-system vid Havannas Universitet. / Las emisiones de gases de invernaderos en Cuba han aumentado drásticamente en la última década, a causa de la creciente demanda del uso de la electricidad. En la actualidad la mayor parte de la electricidad generada en el país se obtiene por la quema del petróleo. En el año 2014, el gobierno de Cuba se propuso la meta, de que un 24% de la electricidad generada en el país en el 2030, fuese obtenida a partir de las fuentes de energías renovables. Para cumplir este objetivo antes del año 2030, será imprescindible hacer grandes inversiones en nuevas tecnologías para el uso de las fuentes de energías renovables. En Cuba también existe una gran preocupación por el cambio climático debido a las vulnerabilidades de la isla frente a los fenómenos atmosféricos que afectan al país por su situación geográfica. Esto ha incrementado los esfuerzos para alcanzar un desarrollo socioeconómico sostenible y la independencia energética del país. El objetivo de este estudio es evaluar la rentabilidad económica, ecológica y social de los sistemas fotovoltaicos (FV) en Cuba. Para lograr este fin se hacen cálculos económicos y técnicos utilizando el software Matlab versión R2016a para la instalación de los sistemas FV en los edificios de la Universidad de La Habana. El estudio considera ambos tipos de sistemas FV, con y sin almacenamiento de energía. Los módulos FV que se investigan en este trabajo son los basados en celdas solares de silicio cristalino porque estas son las celdas más usadas en los sistemas FV de Cuba. Este proyecto contribuirá a que la universidad se independice parcial o completamente de la electricidad generada en el país. La independencia de la red eléctrica nacional es muy importante para la universidad por la gran cantidad de cortes eléctricos a causa de las regulaciones del consumo energético de cada mes. El proyecto considera los aspectos socioeconómicos y ecológicos para encontrar el sistema FV óptimo en la Universidad de La Habana.   El estudio demuestra que uno de las edificaciones que cumple con las condiciones óptimas para la instalación de un sistema fotovoltaico en la Universidad de La Habana es el edifico central del IMRE. Los aspectos examinados en este estudio consideran el consumo energético promedio en el día y la capacidad de respaldo del sistema FV. Teniendo en cuenta, las características de un sistema FV con almacenamiento de energía en los edificios de IMRE, se concluyó que la instalación óptima y más económica tiene un ángulo de inclinación de 20°, una cantidad de 270 módulos FV instalados y una orientación hacia el sur. Los resultados indicaron que el costo de un sistema FV instalado en la Universidad de La Habana es 5,5-32,5%, más económico con batería, y sin batería el costo es 47,8-62,7% más económico que la electricidad generada actualmente. Estos resultados complementan otros estudios realizados y demuestran que el uso de sistemas FV más pequeños son rentables económicamente en Cuba. Este estudio ha demostrado que la instalación de un sistema FV en la Universidad de La Habana es ecológica, económica y socialmente rentable.

This research is concerned with the drivers to utilize Renewable Energy in Gulf Cooperation Council countries with a focus on Kuwait. Such countries show high rates of electricity subsidies with high rate of emissions. At present, there is a continuous need to build new power stations to increase the electrical capacities, in order to cover the high peak loads that occurs in summers to avoid blackouts. The aim of this research is to create a combination of approaches to assess the adoption (economic and environmental) of Photovoltaic for electricity generation in Kuwait, which can be used to assist policy makers to compare various energy mixes and hence determine whether their current and future strategies are appropriate. Kuwait is in this research representative of an exemplar of oil-based economy in Gulf Cooperation Council region since they share similar energy policies and geographic location. The research provides an insight into the adoption of renewables in the region and the impact that particular energy mixes may have. Nine future potential scenarios are created showing different levels of PV deployment within Kuwait. The combination of approaches in this research estimates the economic and environmental impacts using Levelized Cost of Electricity and Life Cycle Assessment respectively of differing RE mixes. The findings show that energy storage increases the cost of electricity and the emissions from the photovoltaic sector. However, for the energy mix (PV and conventional), assuming oil price greater than 10.1$/Bbl. (when no storage required) and 15.2$/Bbl. (when using storage), PV generally lowers the cost of electricity, CO2 and SO2 emissions. Whilst, human toxicity is increased when storage is used. Taking all these factors into account, PV deployment is generally beneficial. However, if different combinations of impacts are considered, environmental and economic impacts may take different patterns. This led to a multi-objective problem to be solved. Using Pareto Front analysis, scenarios without storage requirement (i.e. 13% or less of photovoltaic) are preferable if only cost and human toxicity are considered. The contribution to knowledge from this research is that the deployment of large scale PV technology is beneficial in Kuwait economically and environmentally at least until 30% of the maximum peak load of electricity. The results have implications for other GCC countries with similar geographical, political and energy drivers; the methodology used in this research would be appropriate for these contexts.

In South Africa, there is an increasing interest in installing rooftop mounted solar photovoltaic systems. However, financing the photovoltaic systems causes most interest to be abandoned, largely due to the cost required to replace a building's asbestos roof. An alternative solution to replacing an asbestos roof is to install a ground-mounted photovoltaic system, which is more costly compared to a rooftop mounted system. This study aims to determine if a ground-mounted or a rooftop mounted solar photovoltaic system is the most financially feasible solar photovoltaic configuration. In this study three photovoltaic systems were analysed, all of which are installed in Atlantis, Western Cape (WC). Since all three systems are in the same area, they are all exposed to the same metrological conditions, allowing for identical energy generation potential. Two of the photovoltaic systems are ground-mounted systems located respectfully at the South African Renewable Energy Incubator (SAREBI) and at Stripform Packaging. The third system is a rooftop mounted system located at SA Tyre Recyclers. The photovoltaic system at SAREBI is a 9.75 kWp system consisting of 30 Canadian Solar CS6U-325P modules, one Schneider Electric 20 kW inverter, a tilt angle of 15° and an azimuth angle of -19°. The photovoltaic system at SA Tyre Recyclers is a 231 kWp system consisting of 700 JA Solar JAP72S-01-330-SC modules, 7 SolarEdge 27.6 kW inverters, a tilt angle of 13° and an azimuth angle of 22°. The photovoltaic system at Stripform Packaging is a 20.1 kWp system consisting of 60 Canadian Solar CS6U-335P modules, one SMA 20 kW inverter, a tilt angle of 15° and an azimuth angle of 46°. To achieve the aim of this study, the performance of each of the solar photovoltaic systems was examined, by comparing their annual specific yield. After which the technical aspects and differences of each of the photovoltaic systems were explored, to illustrate how each of the systems differ technically and how each system can be improved. Finally, the comparative cost of each of the solar photovoltaic systems was examined by analysing the levelized cost of energy (LCOE) and the payback period for each of the photovoltaic systems. The results demonstrated that from an annual specific yield perspective, the ground-mounted configuration was the best performing, whilst from a financial perspective, the rooftop mounted configuration had the lowest levelized cost of energy (LCOE) and payback period. However, installing a ground-mounted system is more financially feasible than replacing an asbestos roof and then installing a rooftop mounted system. In conclusion, by fully understanding the performance, payback period and levelized cost of energy, a clear understanding of potential risk can be determined, thus making the installation of photovoltaic systems more appealing for financiers. It is recommended that this study be repeated in a manner in which each of the photovoltaic system configurations are constructed consisting of all the same photovoltaic components, measuring equipment, tilt and azimuth angles. All of which would result in two identical photovoltaic systems where one is installed on a rooftop and the other installed on the ground. Once the two photovoltaic system configurations are equal in all aspects, an accurate comparison to determine which configuration is the most optimal performer and which is the most financially viable will be possible.

I denna uppsats är syftet att skapa en djupare förståelse över hur Sverige ska kunna övergå till hållbar energiutvinning samt hur Sverige ska uppnå målet om 100% förnybar energi vid 2040. Jag ska även i denna uppsats redogöra om de olika för- och nackdelar som finns för solenergi, vindkraft, biokraft, vattenkraft och kärnkraft för att sedan kunna problematisera kring de framtida scenarierna för Sveriges elproduktion. Detta görs via en kvalitativ textanalys av sekundär litteratur från främst myndigheter och de olika scenarierna som lyfts i kungliga ingenjörsvetenskapsakademiens delrapport. Dessa scenarierna ska även uppfylla de olika kriterierna som lyfts av Durance & Godet för om ett scenario ska klassas som användbart, dessa kriterierna är: relevans, sannolikhet, sammanhang, betydelse och transparens. Dessa förklaras mer djupgående vid underrubriken: Val av scenarier. Resultatet för denna uppsats är att det finns för- och nackdelar med alla de olika scenarierna samt att de har olika förutsättningar för att expandera sin elproduktion. Tre av de fyra scenarierna kan expandera sin produktion i tillräckligt hög utsträckning för att säkra Sveriges elproduktion medan två av dessa tre bygger på 100% förnybar energi. Scenario 1 “mer sol och vin och scenario 2 “mer biokraft” uppfyller bäst Durance och Godets fem kriterier för ett användbart scenario och är därför de scenarier som kan anses centrala för en möjlig väg framåt. Men även scenario 3 “ny kärnkraft” för in i diskussionen på grund av dess starka koppling till vissa av Durance och Godets kriterier.

Este trabalho apresenta a avaliação do dimensionamento de sistemas fotovoltaicos conectados à rede por meio de indicadores de custo de energia; foram feitas diversas simulações de geração de energia para sistemas fotovoltaicos com diferentes configurações e tamanhos com o objetivo de verificar a aplicabilidade do método proposto a qualquer sistema. Com a utilização dos indicadores busca-se determinar uma configuração adequada de módulos fotovoltaicos dentro do sistema, isto é, o espaçamento entre fileiras de módulos, o ângulo de inclinação destes, a quantidade de strings e a quantidade de módulos por string, considerando o impacto que estas variáveis têm na geração de energia do sistema ao longo dos anos de vida do projeto. Para avaliar esse impacto são utilizados três indicadores, a saber, o custo da energia gerada, entendida como o custo de instalação de um sistema fotovoltaico (incluindo custo de equipamentos, estruturas, componentes elétricos, mão de obra, lucro do instalador, etc.) dividido pela quantidade de energia que o sistema é capaz de entregar à rede elétrica, o custo nivelado de energia simples (sLCOE por sua sigla em inglês) e o custo nivelado de energia (LCOE) calculado pelo método da taxa de encargo fixo (FCR por sua sigla em inglês). Os indicadores são apresentados em valores em USD/kWh. As simulações foram realizadas em duas locações utilizando equipamentos comercializados atualmente, para sistemas com e sem rastreador solar. O software utilizado para realizar as simulações foi o System Advisor Model (SAM), software gratuito desenvolvido pelo National Renewable Energy Laboratory (NREL) para dimensionamento e cálculo de sistemas fotovoltaicos. / This work presents the evaluation of the sizing of grid-connected photovoltaic systems by means of energy costs indicators; several simulations of power generation for photovoltaic systems with different configurations and sizes were carried out to verify the applicability of the proposed method to any system. By using the indicators it is sought to determine a suitable configuration of photovoltaic modules within the system, that is, the spacing between rows of modules, their tilt angle, the number of strings and the number of modules per string, considering the impact that these variables have on system power generation. In order to evaluate this impact, three indicators are used, namely the cost of the generated energy, understood as the cost of installing a photovoltaic system (including cost of equipment, structures, electrical components, labor, profit of the installer, etc.) divided by the amount of energy that the system is able to deliver to the grid in the first year of operation, the Simple Levelized Cost of Energy (sLCOE) and the Levelized Cost of Energy (LCOE) calculated by the Fixed Charge Rate (FCR) method. The indicators are presented in values in USD/kWh. The simulations were carried out in two locations using commercially available equipment, for fixed-tilt and single axis tracker systems. The software used to perform the simulations was the SAM, free software developed by NREL for sizing and calculation of photovoltaic systems.

Este trabalho apresenta a avaliação do dimensionamento de sistemas fotovoltaicos conectados à rede por meio de indicadores de custo de energia; foram feitas diversas simulações de geração de energia para sistemas fotovoltaicos com diferentes configurações e tamanhos com o objetivo de verificar a aplicabilidade do método proposto a qualquer sistema. Com a utilização dos indicadores busca-se determinar uma configuração adequada de módulos fotovoltaicos dentro do sistema, isto é, o espaçamento entre fileiras de módulos, o ângulo de inclinação destes, a quantidade de strings e a quantidade de módulos por string, considerando o impacto que estas variáveis têm na geração de energia do sistema ao longo dos anos de vida do projeto. Para avaliar esse impacto são utilizados três indicadores, a saber, o custo da energia gerada, entendida como o custo de instalação de um sistema fotovoltaico (incluindo custo de equipamentos, estruturas, componentes elétricos, mão de obra, lucro do instalador, etc.) dividido pela quantidade de energia que o sistema é capaz de entregar à rede elétrica, o custo nivelado de energia simples (sLCOE por sua sigla em inglês) e o custo nivelado de energia (LCOE) calculado pelo método da taxa de encargo fixo (FCR por sua sigla em inglês). Os indicadores são apresentados em valores em USD/kWh. As simulações foram realizadas em duas locações utilizando equipamentos comercializados atualmente, para sistemas com e sem rastreador solar. O software utilizado para realizar as simulações foi o System Advisor Model (SAM), software gratuito desenvolvido pelo National Renewable Energy Laboratory (NREL) para dimensionamento e cálculo de sistemas fotovoltaicos. / This work presents the evaluation of the sizing of grid-connected photovoltaic systems by means of energy costs indicators; several simulations of power generation for photovoltaic systems with different configurations and sizes were carried out to verify the applicability of the proposed method to any system. By using the indicators it is sought to determine a suitable configuration of photovoltaic modules within the system, that is, the spacing between rows of modules, their tilt angle, the number of strings and the number of modules per string, considering the impact that these variables have on system power generation. In order to evaluate this impact, three indicators are used, namely the cost of the generated energy, understood as the cost of installing a photovoltaic system (including cost of equipment, structures, electrical components, labor, profit of the installer, etc.) divided by the amount of energy that the system is able to deliver to the grid in the first year of operation, the Simple Levelized Cost of Energy (sLCOE) and the Levelized Cost of Energy (LCOE) calculated by the Fixed Charge Rate (FCR) method. The indicators are presented in values in USD/kWh. The simulations were carried out in two locations using commercially available equipment, for fixed-tilt and single axis tracker systems. The software used to perform the simulations was the SAM, free software developed by NREL for sizing and calculation of photovoltaic systems.

Made available in DSpace on 2014-12-17T13:53:37Z (GMT). No. of bitstreams: 1 JoaoPCM_DISSERT.pdf: 2393754 bytes, checksum: f95d47c17e14c0db5625ca5a0ae4656d (MD5) Previous issue date: 2014-01-21 / Coordena??o de Aperfei?oamento de Pessoal de N?vel Superior / Offshore wind power emits low amounts of gases, is renewable and has better performance than onshore due to its greater stability and higher wind power density, less visual and noise impact, among others. Brazil has a high capacity of generation, but has not yet developed any offshore projects. High costs are a strong impediment. This study is an effort towards pricing offshore resources through Livelized Cost of Energy - LCOE, which represents the minimum return to cover the costs of development, production and maintenance of a wind project. Initially LCOE was calculated for all Brazilian onshore wind farms listed at Bloomberg New Energy Finance R?, accounting for 71 farms. Then hypothetical offshore wind farms were created from the onshore farms, tripling the cost of generation, which is consistent with the literature, and estimating the offshore energy for two locations off the Brazilian coast using satellite data extracted from National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. The results demonstrate that offshore resources have the potential to significantly reduce the energy price due to the better performance of the wind at sea / A fonte de energia e?lica offshore emite baixas quantidades de gases causadores do efeito estufa, ? renov?vel e apresenta melhor desempenho do que a fonte onshore em quesitos como maior estabilidade e densidade de pot?ncia dos ventos, menor impacto visual e sonoro, dentre outros. O Brasil possui uma capacidade de gera??o offshore substancialmente elevada, mas ainda n?o desenvolveu nenhum projeto nessa modalidade. Os custos elevados s?o um forte empecilho. Esse estudo ? um esfor?o em dire??o ? explora??o desse campo, precificando a fonte offshore atrav?s do Livelized Cost of Energy LCOE, que representa o retorno m?nimo para cobrir os custos de desenvolvimento, produ??o e manuten??o de um projeto e?lico. O LCOE foi primeiramente calculado para todos os parques e?licos onshore brasileiros listados no Bloomberg New Energy Finance R?, contabilizando 71 parques. Em seguida foram criados parques e?licos offshore hipot?ticos a partir dos parques onshore, triplicando os custos de gera??o, o que est? em conformidade com a literatura especializada, e estimando-se a energia offshore para dois pontos da costa brasileira atrav?s de dados de sat?lite extra?dos do National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. Os resultados demonstram que a fonte offshore tem o potencial de reduzir significativamente o pre?o da energia devido ? melhor performance do vento no mar

Det föreligger idag bristfällig kunskap om energislagens ekonomier och utan tillräcklig kännedom om lönsamheten förknippad med sol- och vindkraft kan det vara svårbedömt för investerare att beräkna en potentiell avkastning. Det kan resultera i en ovillighet att satsa kapital i förnybar energi och därmed hämma utvecklingen av energiomställningen. Syftet med studien har därför varit att jämföra sol- och vindkraftsparker för att avgöra vilket investeringsalternativ som är mest ekonomiskt lönsamt. Genom att analysera de förfarande som etablerare har att förhålla sig till, syftar studien även till att belysa och kartlägga processen för etableringen av en storskalig energipark. Arbetet grundar sig på en flermetods-undersökning bestående av en kvantitativ och en kvalitativ metod. Den kvantitativa studien består av data som erhållits från Energimyndigheten tillsammans med inhämtad statistik från tidigare rapporter. Den kvalitativa studien består av semistrukturerade intervjuer med branschföretag och organisationer. Fokus i studien har legat på att framställa två scenarion för att producera LCOE-värden samt nettonuvärden för sol- och vindkraftsparker där parametrar som CAPEX, OPEX, etableringstid, kalkylränta, pris på el, degraderingsgrad och produktionsförmåga utgjort en väsentlig roll i beräkningsunderlaget. Resultaten som framställts i det första scenariot tyder på att solparkens nettonuvärde och LCOE-värde är bättre i jämförelse med vindkraftsparken när kalkylräntan återspeglar den risk som associeras med energislagen. Däremot påvisar resultaten i det andra scenariot att vindkraft är det energislag som är mer ekonomiskt lönsamt när kalkylräntan för bägge energislagen fastställs till samma räntesats. Baserat på resultaten har kalkylräntan en väsentlig påverkan på nuvärdet och LCOE-värdet. Vikten av att välja en korrekt kalkylränta är därför avgörande för att kunna jämföra energislagen mot varandra. Även etableringstiden har visat sig ha en avgörande påverkan på nuvärdesberäkningarna. Avslutningsvis kan studien fastställa att vindkraft är det energislag som är mer fördelaktigt utifrån dess prestationsförmåga och lönsamhet när båda energislagen betraktas med en likartad risk. Däremot, när en investerare står inför ett investeringsbeslut, bör hänsyn tas till riskerna förknippade med investeringen varför solparken således bör anses vara det investeringsalternativ som är mest ekonomiskt lönsamt. / There is currently inadequate knowledge regarding the economics of the energy sources and without sufficient understanding of the profitability associated with solar and wind power, it can be difficult for investors to calculate a potential return. This can result in a reluctance to invest capital in renewable energy and thereby inhibit the development of the energy transition. Therefore, the aim of this study has been to compare solar and wind farms to determine which investment alternative is the most economically profitable. By analyzing the procedures that establishers have to adhere to, the study also aims to illuminate and map out the process of establishing a large-scale energy park. The study is based on a mixed-method survey consisting of a quantitative and a qualitative method. The quantitative study consists of data obtained from the Energy Agency along with gathered statistics from previous reports. The qualitative study consists of semi-structured interviews with industry companies and organizations. The focus of the study has been to present two scenarios to produce LCOE values and net present values for solar and wind farms where parameters such as CAPEX, OPEX, establishment time, discount rate, price of electricity, degradation rate and production capacity have played a significant role in the calculation basis. The results produced in the first scenario indicate that the net present value and LCOE value of the solar park are better compared to the wind farm when the discount rate reflects the risk associated with the energy sources. However, the results in the second scenario shows that wind power is the energy source that is more economically profitable when the discount rate for both energy sources is set at the same interest rate. Based on the result, the discount rate has a significant impact on the present value and the LCOE value. The importance of selecting a correct discount rate is therefore crucial to be able to compare the energy sources against each other. Additionally, the establishment time has proven to be a determining factor that greatly influences the net present value calculations. In conclusion, the study can establish that wind power is the more advantageous energy source based on its performance and profitability when both energy sources are considered with similar risk. However, when an investor faces an investment decision, consideration should be given to the risks associated with the investment, which is why the solar park should be considered the most economically profitable investment option.

The Republic of Kosovo, and its 1.8 million inhabitants, is heavily reliant on two highly pollutive lignite coal-fired power plants, Kosova A and Kosova B for energy generation. The coal-fired power plants, that cover 91% of the energy generation, are reaching the end of their operational life and are in need of either restoration or discontinuation. This implies that Kosovo is in need of energy alternatives for a more flexible energy system which could open opportunities for renewable energy. Solar power in Kosovo is still at a low percentage of less than 1%, and its future penetration is being held back by lack of investments and underdeveloped regulatory framework. Affordable and reliable energy, from solar power, could reduce poverty, lower unemployment, boost economic growth and improve people's health in Kosovo. This coincides with the sustainability goals set by the UN Agenda 2030 and specifically goal 7, ‘Ensure access to affordable, reliable, sustainable and modern energy for all’. The aim of the project was to design a techno-economically optimal PV-system at The University of Prishtina and to investigate the potential technical, social and economic impacts of implementing PV-systems in Kosovo to help achieve the UN 2030 Agenda, specifically SDG 7. The project consists of a quantitative part where simulations were done with the System Advisor Model (SAM) in order to calculate the energy generation and profitability of installing photovoltaic modules at The University of Prishtina with different policy-schemes. In addition, a qualitative study was done by compiling information on the policy structures in Kosovo and other european countries in order to identify obstacles and future trends in the development of renewables. The results showed that it is profitable for the University of Prishtina to install a PV-system in which the inspected financial indicators such as NPV, LCOE and payback time showed profitability for all policy-scenarios. In the base scenario with 200 kWp, which follows the current policy and capacity restrictions on the maximum allowed capacity of 100 kWp per metering point, 60% of the yearly electricity bills were covered. Two additional models were made with alternative policy-scenarios, one with a net-billing model in which sell-rates were altered and another with a higher capacity of 298.49 kWp utilizing the whole roof area. The system of 298.49 kWp gave the highest energy production and could cover 80% of the early electricity bills. The net-billing simulations indicated that profitability is also feasible for small-scale PV in a net-billing scheme with low sell-rates of electricity. LCOE ranged from $6.98 to 8.24 ¢/kWh, for all policy-scenarios, which was lower than the buy-rate of electricity for The University of Prishtina. The results from the simulations along with the qualitative study conclude that the cost- and technical potential for solar power is profitable and feasible. In addition to socio-economic factors such as job-opportunities and health benefits, solar power could be a competitive energy alternative in comparison to current forms of energy generation in Kosovo. However, due to restrictive RES-policy and potentially costly FiT’s in Kosovo a proposition, collected through qualitative studies, is to switch to auctioning schemes with possible usage of FiP’s, if needed, for large- scale PV with regulators putting an emphasis on an open, fair and competitive market. Solar power is competitive and would fare well in such schemes and its implementation should be encouraged by stakeholders and regulators in Kosovo. / Republiken Kosovo och dess 1.8 miljoner invånare är starkt beroende av de två kraftigt förorenade kolkraftverken Kosova A och B för sin energiproduktion. Kolkraftverken, som är i slutskedet av sin livslängd, utgör närmare 91% av landets energiproduktion och är i behov av antingen restaurering eller avveckling. Detta medför ett stort behov av nya, flexibla energikällor i Kosovo vilket luckrar upp möjligheter för förnybar energi, särskilt solkraft. Andelen solkraft i Kosovo utgör idag mindre än 1 % av landets energimix och hämmas avsevärt av underutvecklade regelverk och brist på investering. Ekonomiskt överkomlig och tillförlitlig energi från solkraft skulle kunna bidra till minskad fattigdom, sänkt arbetslöshet, ökad ekonomisk tillväxt samt förbättrad hälsotillstånd hos Kosovos invånare. Detta sammanfaller i sin tur med FN:s globala hållbarhetsmål stipulerade i Agenda 2030, särskilt mål 7, ”Säkerställa tillgång till ekonomiskt överkomlig, tillförlitlig, hållbar och modern energi för alla”. Syftet med arbetet var att utforma ett tekno-ekonomiskt optimalt solcellssystem vid Universitetet i Pristina, samt undersöka de potentiella tekniska, sociala och ekonomiska effekterna av att implementera solcellssystem i Kosovo. Detta i mån om FN:s hållbarhetsmål och Agenda 2030, inriktat på mål 7. Projektet består av en kvantitativ analys där energiproduktionen och lönsamheten av att installera solcellsmoduler vid Universitetet i Pristina simuleras i anknytning till olika policy regelverk med hjälp av System Advisor Model (SAM). Vidare utfördes en kvalitativ studie där information om rådande politiska strukturer och regelverk i Kosovo och andra europeiska länder sammanställdes för att identifiera aktuella hinder och framtida trender i utvecklingen av förnybar energi. Resultaten visade att det är lönsamt för Pristinas universitet att installera ett solcellssystem. De granskade finansiella indikatorerna som NPV, LCOE och payback påvisade lönsamhet för alla simulerade policy scenarion. I bas-scenariot med 200 kWp med nuvarande kapacitets och policy restriktioner på maximalt 100 kWp per mätningspunkt, täcks 60% av de årliga elräkningarna. Därutöver simuleras ytterligare två modeller med alternativa policy-scenarion. En net-billing modell med varierande el-försäljningspriser samt en modell med högre kapacitet på 298,49 kWp. I systemet med 298,49 kWp erhölls den högsta energiproduktionen som täckte närmare 80% av de årliga elräkningarna. Net-billing simuleringarna gemensamt med låga el-försäljningspriser indikerade även lönsamhet i net-billing systemet. Denna typ av elförsäljning kan därmed vara realiserbart och tillämpas för småskaliga solkraftsanläggningar i Kosovo. För alla policy scenarion varierade LCOE från $ 6,98 till 8,24 ¢/kWh, vilket var lägre än elpriserna för Universitetet i Pristina. Resultaten från simuleringarna och den kvalitativa studien antyder att den tekniska och ekonomiska potentialen för solenergi är hög. Utöver socioekonomiska faktorer som jobbmöjligheter och hälsofördelar kan solenergi vara ett konkurrenskraftigt energialternativ jämfört med nuvarande former av energiproduktion i Kosovo tack vare dess billiga kostnader. Med avseende på restriktiva regelverk gällande förnybar energi och den potentiellt dyra feed-in tariff-policyn i Kosovo är det till fördel, baserat på den kvalitativa och kvantitativa analysen, att utveckla ett auktionssystem med kompletterande feed-in premium för storskaliga solkraftsanläggningar. Detta med betoning på en öppen, rättvis och konkurrenskraftig marknad. Solkraft är billigt, konkurrenskraftig och är gynnsam för de socioekonomiska aspekterna i Kosovo. Dess implementering bör uppmuntras av intressenter och lagstiftare i Kosovo. / Në Republiken e Kosovës me 1.8 milion banorë, qytetarët e saj varen shumë nga dy termocentrale të ndotura, Kosova A dhe Kosova B. Termocentralet me linjit, që mbulojnë 91% të gjenerimit të energjisë, po arrijnë fundin e jetës së tyre operacionale dhe kanë nevojë për restaurim ose ndërprerje. Kjo nënkupton që Kosova ka nevojë për energji alternative dhe për një sistem më fleksibël, i cili mund të hapë mundësi për energji të rinovueshme. Energjia diellore në Kosovë është akoma në një përqindje të ulët të perdorimit prej më pak se 1%. Energjia diellore po frenohet nga mungesa e përpilimit të ligjeve dhe mungesa e investimeve. Nga energjia diellore Kosova mund të ketë perfitime në rritjen ekonomike dhe përmirësim të shëndetit për popullatën e Kosovës. Kjo ç ështje eshtë në perputhshmëri me qëllimet të vendosura nga agjenda e OKB-së 2030, në veqanti pika 7 në të cilën thuhet: ‘ të sigurohet aksesi në energji të përballueshme, të besueshme, të qëndrueshme dhe moderne për të gjithë ’. Qëllimi ynë me këtë studim është të hulumtojmë mundësitë për një sistem optimal fotvoltaike (PV) në Universitetin e Prishtinës ‘Hasan Prishtina’. Gjithashtu qellimi me ketë studim është të hulumtojmë ndikimet e mundshme teknike, sociale dhe ekonomike në zbatimin e sistemeve PV në Kosovë për të arritur agjendën e OKB-së 2030, posaçërisht pika 7. Projekti përbëhet nga një pjesë sasiore ku janë bërë simulime me System Advisor Model (SAM) në mënyrë që të llogaritet gjenerimi i energjisë dhe përfitimi i instalimit të moduleve PV në Universitetin e Prishtinës me skema të ndryshme rregullative. Për më tepër, është bërë një studim cilësor duke përpiluar informacione mbi strukturat rregullative në Kosovë dhe vendet e tjera evropiane në mënyrë që të identifikohen pengesat dhe tendencat e ardhshme në zhvillimin e burimeve të ripërtëritshme (BRE). Rezultatet e këtijë studimi tregojnë se, për Universitetin e Prishtinës, është veprim fitimprurëse të instalohet një sistem PV. Përmes këtijë sistemi, treguesit financiarë si NPV, LCOE dhe payback rezultojnë në përfitime ekonomike ne të gjitha skemat e provuara rregullative. Në modelin e parë bazë me 200 kWp, i cili ndjek politikat (policy) aktuale me kufizime të kapaciteteve të lejuar prej 100 kWp për një pikë matëse, mbulohen 60% e faturave vjetore të energjisë elektrike. Ndërsa në dy modelet tjera shtesë, bëmë percaktime të skemave alternative. Një nga modelet ishte net-billing në të cilin ndryshuam normat e shitjes. Tjetri model ishte një sistem PV me kapacitet më të lartë prej 298.49 kWp duke përfshirë gjithë siperfaqën e kulmit. Sistemi prej 298.49 kWp dha prodhimin më të lartë të energjisë dhe mund të mbulojë 80% të faturave të energjisë elektrike. Rezultatët e skemës së net-billing treguan se përfitimi është i mundshëm gjithashtu, me norma të ulëta të shitjes së energjisë elektrike. Kjo skemë mund të zbatohet për instalime të vogla me PV në Kosovë. Vlerat e LCOE varion nga $6.98 ¢/kWh- 8.24 ¢/kWh dollar, në të gjitha modelet. Kjo tregon se kostoja është më e ulët se norma e blerjes së energjisë elektrike për Universitetin e Prishtinës. Rezultatet nga simulimet e të gjitha modeleve së bashku me studimin cilësor arrijnë në përfundim se kostoja dhe potenciali teknik për energjinë diellore është fitimprurëse dhe i realizueshëm. Ky studim tregon se përveç faktorëve socio-ekonomikë siç janë mundësitë e punësimit dhe beneficioneve shëndetësore, energjia diellore mund të jetë një alternativë konkurruese e energjisë në krahasim me format aktuale të gjenerimit të energjisë në Kosovë. Sidoqoftë, për shkak të politikave përkufizuese të BRE-ve dhe feed-in tariff ose FiT-ve, qe janë potencialisht të kushtueshme, një rekomandim për instalime të mëdha të PV-së është kalimi në skema tender, potencialisht me përdorimin të feed-in premium ose FiP-ve. Ne ketë skeme, politikbërësitë duhet të krejojnë mundesit për një treg të hapur, të barabartë dhe konkurrues. Energjia diellore do të jetë me kosto më të ulëta në të ardhmen dhe implementimi i saj duhet të inkurajohet nga palët e interesit dhe politikbërësitë në Kosovë.