The aims of this study were to identify Chloroviruses in two different Ontario freshwaters and to determine if the seasonal abundance patterns of Chloroviruses in different environments are similar. Gene fragments nearly identical to cultivated Chloroviruses were obtained from Lake Ontario and a nearby pond at the University of Toronto Mississauga (UTM) and novel Chlorovirus gene fragments were obtained from Lake Ontario. Quantification of these two Chlorovirus genes over several seasons revealed the presence of persistent viruses with different seasonal dynamics suggesting that different Chloroviruses replicate by infecting different hosts. Additionally, patterns of seasonal abundance and timings of peak abundances for individual viruses differed between Lake Ontario and the UTM pond, demonstrating the critical role of the environment in Chlorovirus dynamics. The observation of different Chloroviruses with different seasonal dynamics allows speculation that these viruses and their hosts stably coexist in Ontario freshwater environments.

To initiate algal virus research in the Bay of Quinte, three stations were sampled biweekly throughout 2011. By targeting algal virus DNA polymerase, major capsid protein genes (MCP), and a Microcystis aeruginosa cyanophage (Ma-LMM01) tail sheath protein gene, PCR amplification revealed diverse and unique Phycodnaviruses (viruses of eukaryotic algae) and cyanophage. When analysed statistically, patterns of virus abundance suggested that the seasonality of any one virus cannot be generalised to predict that of other viruses, even among closely related viruses. This study also demonstrated a strong relationship between algal virus abundance and host biomass. It was found that despite the apparent heterogeneity of virus abundance across the Bay, virus abundance patterns clustered by sampling date and geographic location. By providing evidence for diverse algal viruses with complex seasonality, this work highlights significant gaps in the current understanding of Bay of Quinte phytoplankton ecology.

The aims of this study were to identify Chloroviruses in two different Ontario freshwaters and to determine if the seasonal abundance patterns of Chloroviruses in different environments are similar. Gene fragments nearly identical to cultivated Chloroviruses were obtained from Lake Ontario and a nearby pond at the University of Toronto Mississauga (UTM) and novel Chlorovirus gene fragments were obtained from Lake Ontario. Quantification of these two Chlorovirus genes over several seasons revealed the presence of persistent viruses with different seasonal dynamics suggesting that different Chloroviruses replicate by infecting different hosts. Additionally, patterns of seasonal abundance and timings of peak abundances for individual viruses differed between Lake Ontario and the UTM pond, demonstrating the critical role of the environment in Chlorovirus dynamics. The observation of different Chloroviruses with different seasonal dynamics allows speculation that these viruses and their hosts stably coexist in Ontario freshwater environments.

To initiate algal virus research in the Bay of Quinte, three stations were sampled biweekly throughout 2011. By targeting algal virus DNA polymerase, major capsid protein genes (MCP), and a Microcystis aeruginosa cyanophage (Ma-LMM01) tail sheath protein gene, PCR amplification revealed diverse and unique Phycodnaviruses (viruses of eukaryotic algae) and cyanophage. When analysed statistically, patterns of virus abundance suggested that the seasonality of any one virus cannot be generalised to predict that of other viruses, even among closely related viruses. This study also demonstrated a strong relationship between algal virus abundance and host biomass. It was found that despite the apparent heterogeneity of virus abundance across the Bay, virus abundance patterns clustered by sampling date and geographic location. By providing evidence for diverse algal viruses with complex seasonality, this work highlights significant gaps in the current understanding of Bay of Quinte phytoplankton ecology.

A thesis submitted to the School of Graduate Studies in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree Master of Science / The effect of changing environmental conditions on microbial population structure can be observed at both the species and community level. Within the Escherichia coli species, null mutations in the RpoS stationary phase regulator are commonly selected by growth on poor carbon sources. In contrast, mutations which restore RpoS function may provide a selective advantage for cells exposed to environmental stress. The loss and subsequent restoration of RpoS form a population-level switch for adaptation within poor carbon and high stress environments. To investigate selection for RpoS reversion, we exposed rpoS-deficient E. coli to high salt concentrations and assessed the phenotype of presumptive mutants. 3-9% of salt-resistant mutants contained reversion mutations within rpoS, while in 91-97% the loss of RpoS function was maintained and mutations at alternative gene loci were identified. These results show that RpoS function can be restored in deficient E. coli under selective pressure. At the community level, the application of next-generation sequencing (NGS) technology to characterize environmental microbial diversity can potentially augment traditional water quality monitoring methods. To investigate the use of NGS in identifying microbial taxa within the Niagara Region, we collected water samples from Lake Erie, Lake Ontario, and nearby areas and examined the metagenome of microbial communities. A QIIME (Quantitative Insights Into Microbial Ecology) analysis of sequence data identified significant differences in relative microbial abundance with respect to sample metadata (e.g. location and subtype), significant correlations between relative abundance and quantitative parameters (e.g. Escherichia coli counts and fecal DNA markers), and detected pathogen-containing taxa at a relative abundance of 0.1-1.5%. These results show that sequence-based analyses can be used in conjunction with traditional identification methods to profile the metagenomic community of environmental samples and predict water quality. Both within-species and community-wide analyses thus offer insight into how microbial populations respond and adapt to environmental fluctuations. / Thesis / Master of Science (MSc) / The effect of changing environmental conditions on microbial population structure can be observed at both the species and community level. Within the Escherichia coli species, we investigated reversion of loss of function mutations in the RpoS protein regulator in high salt conditions and identified RpoS restoration under selective pressure. At the community level, we examined the microbial DNA of water samples from the Niagara Region under select environmental conditions and assessed the viability of next-generation sequencing in augmenting traditional water quality monitoring methods. Both within-species and community-wide analyses offer insight into how microbial populations respond and adapt to environmental fluctuations.

Memento Mori, Latin for “remember thy death,” implores us to be mindful that death is both inevitable and inescapable. What of the records created during the process of dying and about death? Based upon wide-ranging archival research into primary documents, this thesis explores the rich sources of both official, public records, and personal, private ones, relating to mortality on the small-town Canadian frontier before 1950. The community of Red Lake, Ontario, which was established on the frontier as the result of the Red Lake gold rush of 1926, is the subject of a case study. Rather than merely cataloguing sources, this thesis illustrates that by adapting aspects from such archival appraisal methodologies as macroappraisal and documentation strategy, one is able to make available to researchers a wider range of sources relevant to the themes of dying and death. Specifically, by employing a documentation strategy methodology to identify and illuminate the records of human activities surrounding the functions of dying and death, archivists can offer to researchers the opportunity to locate relevant records wherever they may physically be. Since this is an Archival Studies thesis, it does not provide an historical analysis of dying and death, but is an archival study of the types of records related to the theme of mortality on the Canadian frontier: how those records were created, their character, and their capture and preservation in a small community. This thesis is organized into three chapters and a conclusion. Chapter One explores some relevant trends in the secondary literature of three fields: archival appraisal and description, small town or local development on the frontier, and dying and death as human activities. Chapter Two sets the context in which the thesis analyzes mortality on the frontier by outlining the relevant history of the Red Lake District of Northwestern Ontario and its pioneers. The focus is especially on the gold-mining boom years from the mid-1920s until shortly after the Second World War. The heart of the thesis, Chapter Three, is a case study of the various records creators, human activities, and resultant records related to mortality. It is organized according to three phases or functional categories surrounding dying, death, and memorialization. The conclusion summarizes the usefulness of the case study, in light of the literature review in Chapter One. It also suggests areas of further research, including aspects not covered herein, of the records of dying and death on the Canadian frontier. The documentation strategy, adapted from the original methods employed by archivists Helen Samuels and Richard Cox, was found to work best when deployed as a research and descriptive tool for exploring and documenting the records of mortality, more so than its original purpose as an acquisition tool. The strategy has wide-ranging usefulness discovering and then describing a “virtual” documentation universe relating to record-generating human functions and activities. / February 2008

Memento Mori, Latin for “remember thy death,” implores us to be mindful that death is both inevitable and inescapable. What of the records created during the process of dying and about death? Based upon wide-ranging archival research into primary documents, this thesis explores the rich sources of both official, public records, and personal, private ones, relating to mortality on the small-town Canadian frontier before 1950. The community of Red Lake, Ontario, which was established on the frontier as the result of the Red Lake gold rush of 1926, is the subject of a case study. Rather than merely cataloguing sources, this thesis illustrates that by adapting aspects from such archival appraisal methodologies as macroappraisal and documentation strategy, one is able to make available to researchers a wider range of sources relevant to the themes of dying and death. Specifically, by employing a documentation strategy methodology to identify and illuminate the records of human activities surrounding the functions of dying and death, archivists can offer to researchers the opportunity to locate relevant records wherever they may physically be. Since this is an Archival Studies thesis, it does not provide an historical analysis of dying and death, but is an archival study of the types of records related to the theme of mortality on the Canadian frontier: how those records were created, their character, and their capture and preservation in a small community. This thesis is organized into three chapters and a conclusion. Chapter One explores some relevant trends in the secondary literature of three fields: archival appraisal and description, small town or local development on the frontier, and dying and death as human activities. Chapter Two sets the context in which the thesis analyzes mortality on the frontier by outlining the relevant history of the Red Lake District of Northwestern Ontario and its pioneers. The focus is especially on the gold-mining boom years from the mid-1920s until shortly after the Second World War. The heart of the thesis, Chapter Three, is a case study of the various records creators, human activities, and resultant records related to mortality. It is organized according to three phases or functional categories surrounding dying, death, and memorialization. The conclusion summarizes the usefulness of the case study, in light of the literature review in Chapter One. It also suggests areas of further research, including aspects not covered herein, of the records of dying and death on the Canadian frontier. The documentation strategy, adapted from the original methods employed by archivists Helen Samuels and Richard Cox, was found to work best when deployed as a research and descriptive tool for exploring and documenting the records of mortality, more so than its original purpose as an acquisition tool. The strategy has wide-ranging usefulness discovering and then describing a “virtual” documentation universe relating to record-generating human functions and activities.

Memento Mori, Latin for “remember thy death,” implores us to be mindful that death is both inevitable and inescapable. What of the records created during the process of dying and about death? Based upon wide-ranging archival research into primary documents, this thesis explores the rich sources of both official, public records, and personal, private ones, relating to mortality on the small-town Canadian frontier before 1950. The community of Red Lake, Ontario, which was established on the frontier as the result of the Red Lake gold rush of 1926, is the subject of a case study. Rather than merely cataloguing sources, this thesis illustrates that by adapting aspects from such archival appraisal methodologies as macroappraisal and documentation strategy, one is able to make available to researchers a wider range of sources relevant to the themes of dying and death. Specifically, by employing a documentation strategy methodology to identify and illuminate the records of human activities surrounding the functions of dying and death, archivists can offer to researchers the opportunity to locate relevant records wherever they may physically be. Since this is an Archival Studies thesis, it does not provide an historical analysis of dying and death, but is an archival study of the types of records related to the theme of mortality on the Canadian frontier: how those records were created, their character, and their capture and preservation in a small community. This thesis is organized into three chapters and a conclusion. Chapter One explores some relevant trends in the secondary literature of three fields: archival appraisal and description, small town or local development on the frontier, and dying and death as human activities. Chapter Two sets the context in which the thesis analyzes mortality on the frontier by outlining the relevant history of the Red Lake District of Northwestern Ontario and its pioneers. The focus is especially on the gold-mining boom years from the mid-1920s until shortly after the Second World War. The heart of the thesis, Chapter Three, is a case study of the various records creators, human activities, and resultant records related to mortality. It is organized according to three phases or functional categories surrounding dying, death, and memorialization. The conclusion summarizes the usefulness of the case study, in light of the literature review in Chapter One. It also suggests areas of further research, including aspects not covered herein, of the records of dying and death on the Canadian frontier. The documentation strategy, adapted from the original methods employed by archivists Helen Samuels and Richard Cox, was found to work best when deployed as a research and descriptive tool for exploring and documenting the records of mortality, more so than its original purpose as an acquisition tool. The strategy has wide-ranging usefulness discovering and then describing a “virtual” documentation universe relating to record-generating human functions and activities.

Lead is a known toxin, with the ability to accumulate in the human body from as early as fetal development. Lead exposure is known to cause a myriad of health effects which are more prominent among children. Health effects upon exposure can range from renal and heart disease or potentially cancer in adults to neurotoxicity in children. The continued presence of old lead service lines and plumbing in distribution systems as well as lead-containing solders and brass fixtures in homes may contribute lead to drinking water. Recent studies have highlighted the importance of a predictor known as the chloride-to-sulfate mass ratio (CSMR) in controlling lead release. A ratio above 0.5 – 0.6 theoretically increases the aggressiveness of lead leaching in galvanic settings, while a lower ratio controls lead corrosion. A switch in coagulant type could significantly alter the ratio. However, a coagulant switch could also trigger changes in finished water turbidity and organics, including disinfection by-product (DBP) precursors, as well as impact sludge production. Anecdotal evidence from an Ontario water treatment utility suggested the potential applicability of a newly formulated polymer, cationic activated silica (CAS), in improving DBP precursor removal when used in concurrence with a primary coagulant. No previous scientific research had been dedicated to testing of the polymer. The present research had three primary objectives: The first was to investigate the effect of conventional coagulation with six different coagulants on the chloride-to-sulfate mass ratio as it pertains to lead corrosion in two Ontario source waters of differing quality. Additionally, the effect of coagulant choice on pH, turbidity, and organics removal was investigated. The second objective was aimed at testing potential reductions in CSMR and organics that could be brought about by the use of two polymers, cationic and anionic activated silica (CAS and AAS, respectively), as flocculant aids. Finally, the performance of a high-rate sand-ballasted clarification process was simulated at bench-scale to gauge its performance in comparison with conventional coagulation simulation techniques. The first series of jar-tests investigated the effectiveness of CAS as a primary coagulant on Lake Ontario water. In comparison with the conventional coagulants aluminum sulfate and polyaluminum chloride, CAS did not offer any apparent advantage with respect to turbidity and organics removal. Testing of CAS and AAS as flocculant aids was also conducted. Results from a full factorial experiment focused on CAS testing on Lake Ontario water showed that coagulant dose is the most significant contributor to CSMR, turbidity, DOC removal, and THM control. Generally, improvements resulting from CAS addition were of small magnitude (<15%). Reductions in CSMR were attributed to the presence of the sulfate-containing chemicals alum and sulfuric acid in the CAS formulation. Testing of sulfuric acid-activated AAS on Grand River water showed that pairing of AAS with polyaluminum chloride provides better results than with alum with respect to DOC removal (39% and 27% respectively at 60 mg/L coagulant dose). Highest turbidity removals (>90%) with both coagulants were achieved at the tested coagulant and AAS doses of 10 mg/L and 4 mg/L respectively. CSMR reductions in the presence of AAS were also attributable to sulfate contribution from sulfuric acid. Bench-scale simulation of a high-rate sand-ballasted clarification process on Grand River water showed comparable removal efficiencies for turbidity (80 – 90% at 10 mg/L), and DOC (30 – 40% at 50 mg/L). Finally, six different coagulants were tested on the two source waters for potential applicability in CSMR adjustment in the context of lead corrosion. The two chloride-containing coagulants polyaluminum chloride and aluminum chlorohydrate increased CSMR in proportion to the coagulant dose added, as would be expected. Average chloride contribution per 10 mg/L coagulant dose was 2.7 mg/L and 2.0 mg/L for polyaluminum chloride and aluminum chlorohydrate, respectively. Sulfate-contributing coagulants aluminum sulfate, ferric sulfate, pre-hydroxylated aluminum sulfate, and polyaluminum silicate sulfate reduced CSMR as coagulant dose increased, also as would be expected. The highest sulfate contributors per 10 mg/L dose were pre-hydroxylated aluminum sulfate (6.2 mg/L) and ferric sulfate (6.0 mg/L). The lowest CSMR achieved was 0.6 in Lake Ontario water at a 30 mg/L dose and 0.8 in Grand River water at a 60 mg/L dose. Highest DOC removals were achieved with the chloride-containing coagulants in both waters (35 – 50%) with aluminum chlorohydrate showing superiority in that respect. DOC removals with sulfate-containing coagulants were less, generally in the range of 22 – 41%. Specificity of critical CSMR values to source water needs to be investigated. Additionally, long term effects of sustained high or low CSMR values in distribution systems need to be further looked into. Finally, the effect of interventions to alter CSMR on other water quality parameters influencing lead corrosion such as pH and alkalinity still represent a research deficit.

Lead is a known toxin, with the ability to accumulate in the human body from as early as fetal development. Lead exposure is known to cause a myriad of health effects which are more prominent among children. Health effects upon exposure can range from renal and heart disease or potentially cancer in adults to neurotoxicity in children. The continued presence of old lead service lines and plumbing in distribution systems as well as lead-containing solders and brass fixtures in homes may contribute lead to drinking water. Recent studies have highlighted the importance of a predictor known as the chloride-to-sulfate mass ratio (CSMR) in controlling lead release. A ratio above 0.5 – 0.6 theoretically increases the aggressiveness of lead leaching in galvanic settings, while a lower ratio controls lead corrosion. A switch in coagulant type could significantly alter the ratio. However, a coagulant switch could also trigger changes in finished water turbidity and organics, including disinfection by-product (DBP) precursors, as well as impact sludge production. Anecdotal evidence from an Ontario water treatment utility suggested the potential applicability of a newly formulated polymer, cationic activated silica (CAS), in improving DBP precursor removal when used in concurrence with a primary coagulant. No previous scientific research had been dedicated to testing of the polymer. The present research had three primary objectives: The first was to investigate the effect of conventional coagulation with six different coagulants on the chloride-to-sulfate mass ratio as it pertains to lead corrosion in two Ontario source waters of differing quality. Additionally, the effect of coagulant choice on pH, turbidity, and organics removal was investigated. The second objective was aimed at testing potential reductions in CSMR and organics that could be brought about by the use of two polymers, cationic and anionic activated silica (CAS and AAS, respectively), as flocculant aids. Finally, the performance of a high-rate sand-ballasted clarification process was simulated at bench-scale to gauge its performance in comparison with conventional coagulation simulation techniques. The first series of jar-tests investigated the effectiveness of CAS as a primary coagulant on Lake Ontario water. In comparison with the conventional coagulants aluminum sulfate and polyaluminum chloride, CAS did not offer any apparent advantage with respect to turbidity and organics removal. Testing of CAS and AAS as flocculant aids was also conducted. Results from a full factorial experiment focused on CAS testing on Lake Ontario water showed that coagulant dose is the most significant contributor to CSMR, turbidity, DOC removal, and THM control. Generally, improvements resulting from CAS addition were of small magnitude (<15%). Reductions in CSMR were attributed to the presence of the sulfate-containing chemicals alum and sulfuric acid in the CAS formulation. Testing of sulfuric acid-activated AAS on Grand River water showed that pairing of AAS with polyaluminum chloride provides better results than with alum with respect to DOC removal (39% and 27% respectively at 60 mg/L coagulant dose). Highest turbidity removals (>90%) with both coagulants were achieved at the tested coagulant and AAS doses of 10 mg/L and 4 mg/L respectively. CSMR reductions in the presence of AAS were also attributable to sulfate contribution from sulfuric acid. Bench-scale simulation of a high-rate sand-ballasted clarification process on Grand River water showed comparable removal efficiencies for turbidity (80 – 90% at 10 mg/L), and DOC (30 – 40% at 50 mg/L). Finally, six different coagulants were tested on the two source waters for potential applicability in CSMR adjustment in the context of lead corrosion. The two chloride-containing coagulants polyaluminum chloride and aluminum chlorohydrate increased CSMR in proportion to the coagulant dose added, as would be expected. Average chloride contribution per 10 mg/L coagulant dose was 2.7 mg/L and 2.0 mg/L for polyaluminum chloride and aluminum chlorohydrate, respectively. Sulfate-contributing coagulants aluminum sulfate, ferric sulfate, pre-hydroxylated aluminum sulfate, and polyaluminum silicate sulfate reduced CSMR as coagulant dose increased, also as would be expected. The highest sulfate contributors per 10 mg/L dose were pre-hydroxylated aluminum sulfate (6.2 mg/L) and ferric sulfate (6.0 mg/L). The lowest CSMR achieved was 0.6 in Lake Ontario water at a 30 mg/L dose and 0.8 in Grand River water at a 60 mg/L dose. Highest DOC removals were achieved with the chloride-containing coagulants in both waters (35 – 50%) with aluminum chlorohydrate showing superiority in that respect. DOC removals with sulfate-containing coagulants were less, generally in the range of 22 – 41%. Specificity of critical CSMR values to source water needs to be investigated. Additionally, long term effects of sustained high or low CSMR values in distribution systems need to be further looked into. Finally, the effect of interventions to alter CSMR on other water quality parameters influencing lead corrosion such as pH and alkalinity still represent a research deficit.