本研究主要目的在探討：(1)文化中心主任的領導行為對員工的組織承諾是否具有影響力；(2)文化中心員工所受社會支持程度是否影響其組織承諾；(3)文化中心主任領導行為與員工所受社會支持程度對員工組織承諾是否具有交互作用；(4)文化中心員工的背景變項是否影響其組織承諾。 　　從文獻探討和實證調查結果，歸納結論並提出建議作為文化中心行政運作之參考。為達以上之目的，自編「文化中心主任領導行為與員工工作感受調查問卷」作為研究工具，以台灣省政府所轄之縣市中，已開放使用的十九個文化中心之員工為研究對象，隨機抽取580位員工進行問卷調查，有效樣本為445人，將蒐集問卷之資料，進行多變量變異數分析、單因子變異數分析及其他描述性統計。 　　根據實證調查結果，本研究主要發現如下： 　　一、文化中心主任不同的領導行為對員工的組織承諾其有影響力。 　　　（一）文化中心主任不同程度的關懷行為，在員工組織承諾上有顯著的差異。 　　　（二）文化中心主任不同程度的倡導行為，在員工組織承諾上有顯著的差異。 　　　（三）文化中心主任採高關懷或高倡導的領導行為，其員工的留職意願及組織認同最佳。 　　二、文化中心員工所受不同程度的社會支持，對其組織承諾具有影響力。員工所受社會支持的程度愈高，其組織承諾愈高；所受社會支持的程度愈低，則其組織承諾愈低。 　　　（一）員工受「直屬長官」不同程度的社會支持，在其組織承諾各層面上具有顯著的差異。員工受到直屬長官的社會支持程度愈高，其留職意願及組織認同愈高；員工受到直屬長官的社會支持程度愈低，則其留職意願及組織認同愈低。 　　　（二）員工受「同事」不同程度的社會支持，在其組織承諾各層面上具有顯著的差異。員工受到同事的社會支持程度愈高，其留職意願及組織認同愈高；員工受到同事的社會支持程度愈低，則其留職意願及組織認同愈低。 　　　（三）員工受「家人親友」不同程度的社會支持，對其組織承諾各層面並未達顯著差異。文化中心員工的留職意願及組織認同，均不會因其家人親友社會支持程度高低而有顯著的差異。 　　三、文化中心主任的關懷行為、倡導行為和員工所受社會支持程度對員工組織承諾各層面而言，其主要效果具有顯著性的影響，而且發現主任的倡導行為與員工所受社會支持的程度具有交互作用的影響。並進一步發現，文化中心主任對其員工採取高倡導行為時，而且員工得到高程度的社會支持，則其留職意願較高，但其組織認同仍未達顯著差異。 　　四、文化中心員工因其性別、年齡、服務年資、擔任職務、教育程度、婚姻狀況及工作部門之不同，在其組織承諾各層面只有部分具有顯著性的差異。

本研究主要目的在分析國民校長賦權增能領導行為、組織創新經營與學校效能之間關係。研究採用調查研究法，以臺灣地區之公立國民中學教師為研究對象抽自北中南東71所學校，計有820位。問卷調查結果採用描述性統計、t考驗、單因子變異數分析、皮爾森積差相關、逐步多元迴歸以及結構方程式等統計方式加以分析。 本研究得到下列項結論：一、目前國民中學校長賦權增能領導行為情況良好，並以「參與及自主決策」為最佳，二、目前國民中學組織創新經營表現良好，並以「組織氣氛創新」為最佳，三、目前國民中學的學校效能情況良好，並以「校園規劃設施」為最佳，四、背景變項在國民中學校長賦權增能領導行為、組織創新經營與學校效能之差異情形，五、國民中學校長賦權增能領導行為、組織創新經營與學校效能三者間具有正向的關聯。六、國民中學校長賦權增能領導行為及組織創新經營的分層面，對學校效能有正向的預測作用。七、國民中學校長賦權增能領導行為可透過組織創新經營，增強對學校效能的正向影響力。 最後，根據研究結果提出主要結論與相關建議，以供教育行政機關與國民中學之參酌。 / The purpose of this study is to examine the relationship between empowering leadership behavior, organizational innovation management, and school effectiveness. Data were collected from 820 teachers of 71 junior high schools in Taiwan. The data were analyzed by descriptive statistics, t-test, one-way ANOVA, pearson correlation analysis, stepwise regression, and structural equation modeling. Finally, the findings of this study are as followings: 1. The perceptions from the junior high school teachers about empowering leadership behavior are positive. Furthermore, “participation and autonomous decision-making” is the highest. 2. The perceptions from the junior high school teachers about organization innovative management are positive. Besides “organizational climate of innovation” is the highest. 3. The perceptions from the junior high school teachers about school effectiveness are positive. “campus planning and facilities” is the highest in addition. 4. To describe the differences of the background of junior high school principals’ empowering leadership behavior, organizational innovation management, and school effectiveness. 5. There are significant correlations between school effectiveness and principals’ empowering leadership behavior as well as between organizational innovation management and school effectiveness. 6. The sub-level of the principals’ empowering leadership and organizational innovation management can apparently predict the school effectiveness. 7. The results from structural equation model indicated that there is a positive indirect effect between principals’ empowering leadership behavior and school effectiveness when organizational innovation management served as a mediating variable. At last, according to the results, this study provides the conclusion and the suggestions particularly for the institution of educational administration and junior high schools.

本研究旨在探討國民小學校長競值領導行為與教師組織承諾之關係。研究採用調查研究法，以臺灣北部區域之公立國民小學教師為對象，總共發出1043份問卷，問卷回收率為85.91%，有效問卷回收率則為81.30%。正式問卷回收之後，分別以百分等級、t考驗、單因子變異數分析、卡方考驗、皮爾森積差相關分析、迴歸分析等統計方式對回收資料進行分析。 本研究獲得以下十項結論： 一、國民小學校長競值領導行為較著重「競爭行為」層面，且以「均衡領導型」比例最高。 二、國民小學教師組織承諾以「努力意願」層面表現最佳。 三、男校長在校長競值領導行為之合作行為層面有較佳表現，年輕校長在校長競值領導行為各層面有較佳表現。 四、小型規模、偏遠地區的校長在校長競值領導行為各層面均有較佳表現。 五、年齡大的校長在均衡領導型的比例較低且在平庸領導型的比例較高。 六、小型規模、偏遠地區的校長在均衡領導型的比例較高且在平庸領導型的比例較低。 七、年齡大、資深及教師兼主任的教師組織承諾較高，小型規模及偏遠地區學校的教師組織承諾亦較高。 八、校長競值領導行為以「均衡領導型」在教師組織承諾的表現最佳，「不均衡領導型」次之，「平庸領導型」最不理想。 九、校長領導競值行為與教師組織承諾具有正向關連，校長競值領導行為表現愈好，則教師組織承諾愈高。 十、國小校長採行競值領導行為有助於教師組織承諾之提升，其中僅「合作行為」與「競爭行為」兩個領導行為層面具有顯著預測力，競值領導理論之「均衡觀點」宜適度修正。 根據研究結論提出下列建議： 一、對教育行政機關之建議 （一）校長職前與在職訓練，宜融入競值領導相關課程。 （二）適度控制學校經濟規模，以利於教師組織承諾之維持。 二、對國小校長之建議 （一）校長應加強領導行為之複雜性，以增進領導效能。 （二）校長要不斷吸取新知與積極進修，以強化專業智能與教育熱忱。 （三）校長宜多關懷年輕、資淺及未兼行政職務之教師，以協助其生涯發展。 （四）校長須展現兼容並蓄的領導作風，同時採取競爭行為與合作行為，以提升教師組織承諾。 三、對未來研究之建議 （一）研究對象可擴大至國中、高中等不同層級學校，乃至私立學校。 （二）研究變項可加入其他可能影響教師組織承諾的變項。 （三）研究方法可酌加使用質化方式之訪談，並在橫斷性研究的基礎上，兼採縱貫性研究，蒐集相關資料。 （四）競值領導理論架構需要國內更多實證研究去驗證其在本國教育環境的適用性與可行性。 / The purpose of the study was to investigate the relationship between principals’ competing values leadership behavior and teachers’ organizational commitment in elementary schools. The reasearch method this study adopted is survey reasearch. Data were collected from 1043 teachers of elementary schools in northern parts of Taiwan. The response rates were 85.91%; the usable rates were 81.30%. The collected data were analyzed by using the statistical methods of percentile rank, t-test, one-way ANOVA, χ2 test, Pearson product-moment correlation and regression analysis. The conclusions of this study are: 1.Among all of the dimensions of principals’ competing values leadership behavior, “Compete” is the dominant in the elementary schools. And “Balanced Style” ranks the highest. 2.Among all of the dimensions of teachers’ organizational commitment, “Effort Intention” is the dominant in the elementary schools. 3.Male principals have better performances in “Collaborate”. Young principals have better performances among all of the dimensions of principals’ competing values leadership behavior. 4.Principals in small-sized schools and in remote area schools have better performances among all of the dimensions of principals’ competing values leadership behavior. 5.Among competing values leadership behavior of elder principals, “Balanced Style” ranks lower and “Mediocre Style”ranks higher. 6.Among competing values leadership behavior of principals in small-sized schools and in remote area schools, “Balanced Style” ranks higer and “Mediocre Style”ranks lower. 7.Elder, senior teachers and directors in schools have higher organizational commitment; teachers in small-sized schools and in remote area schools also have higher organizational commitment. 8.Underneath principals’ competing values leadership behavior , Teachers have the best organizational commitment toward “Balanced Style”, the next-best organizational commitment toward “Unbalanced Style” and the worst organizational commitment toward “Mediocre Style”. 9.There is a positive relationship between principals’ competing values leadership behavior and teachers’ organizational commitment. Principals with better leadership performances tend to enhance teachers’ organizational commitment. 10.Principals ’ competing values leadership behavior promote teachers’ organizational commitment. Among all of the dimensions of principals’ competing values leadership behavior, “Collaborate” and “Compete” have significant predictabilty, “Balanced Perspective” could be modified. Based on the findings, the study offers suggestions for the education authorities, the principals of elementary schools, and the future researchers, hoping to shed light on the development of elementary school education in the future.

This study investigates the relationship between the school climate, as perceived by the professional staff, and specific leadership behavior, as reported by the school principals in a selected school district in the state of Washington, The purpose of the study is to determine the extent to which the leader behavior of the principal correlates with- the total school climate as well as with the individual factors comprising the school climate. There are no statistically significant relationships among the variables studied. The hypothesis that the higher the leadership skills of the principal the more beneficial would be the climate of the school is not supported. The results suggest that the school climate is independent of the leadership behavior of the principal. Since no difference was found when the factors of climate were considered cumulatively, the individual factors were analyzed for significance. The seven factors of climate, identified by James Tunney and James Jenkins from the CFK Ltd. School Climate Profile, were independent of the leadership ability of the principal.

The problem of this study was to determine teachers' perceptions of their school organizational climate, to determine teachers' perceptions of their principal's leadership behavior, and to ascertain the relationships between teachers' perceptions of school organizational climate and principal's leadership behavior. The study had three major purposes. The first was to determine teachers' perceptions of their school organizational climate as measured by the Organizational Climate Description Questionnaire (OCDQ) across selected variables. The second was to determine teachers' perceptions of their principal's leadership behavior as measured by the Leader Behavior Description Questionnaire (LBDQ) across selected variables. The third was to ascertain whether significant relationships existed between teachers' perceptions of school organizational climate and their principal's leadership behavior. Based on the analyses of data, the conclusions could be drawn that: 1. The school organizational climates as perceived by secondary school teachers tended to fall into the closed end of the open-closed climate continuum. It is interesting to note that teachers with more years of teaching experience perceived their school organizational climates as being open. 2. All of the teachers in this study perceived their principal as an effective leader. 3. There was a significant relationship between organizational climate and principal's leadership behavior; however, no matter how teachers perceived their school organizational climate, they still perceived their principal as an effective leader.

Relatively few people occupy formal leadership positions in their lives. Yet everyone must make decisions in the context of their different roles in life and different positions in society which will influence other people in their environment. Most South African primary schools have leadership models and appointment procedures which culminate in a "formal leadership crush" in the 12th and 13th year of the developing preadolescent. This period is described in literature as a critical development period and serves as a foundation for the forming of identity in the adolescent period which follows it. The purpose of this research is to investigate the appropriateness of existing leadership models for preadolescents in asocial context. Two leadership models are relevant. The first model is the traditional appointment of a core group of leaders for a period of a year, who must perform certain tasks. The second model developed in response to bigger pressure to democratize the leadership process in schools and assumed the form of a committee system. Learners are divided into committees, chairpersons and vice-chairpersons are elected and learners are jointly responsible for performing certain tasks. At the end of the year a core group of high-profile leaders are then appointed. A qualitative research method which follows an inductive, exploring approach was selected, because this method acknowledges the complexity of the phenomenon. Data was content-analytically processed by means of Atlas.ti. The application of different leadership models in the preadolescent development phase is a complex issue. The results indicate that children realize that competence, exemplariness, diligence, hard work, being reliable for teachers, performance and leadership qualities are less important than popularity, familiarity and acceptability among the peer group. In addition the election procedure is inconsequent, because children are brought under the impression that they are being identified as leaders, while at the same time there is a so-called "democratic" process over which children and teachers have no control. Leaders' primary tasks are supervision, discipline and the maintenance of order. This position implies the potential for conflict, because fellow learners are not recognized as authority figures and because the leaders also do not have enforceable authority. Formal leadership models also do not recognize the informal peer group ordering of the participants in the process, and inferiority and a feeling of disempowerment are the result of a situation where a formal role is assigned to someone who is not recognized in the group. The misfit between the demands which a social environment makes of children in the preadolescent development phase may possibly be the cause of the manner in which children's emotional, behavioral and social development disturbances manifest. Primary school leadership models as evaluated in this study, influence the development and end result of the spontaneous development of the preadolescent with regard to the physical, cognitive-moral and psycho-social development. The . compulsory participation in a leadership model in grade 7 has a disruptive and disturbing impact on the preadolescent's development. Proposals for the reviewing of leadership models include the establishment of structure, mentorship and personal involvement and supervision by teachers. That means that time and energy must be spent with the preadolescent, so that behavior and learning may take place by means of modeling and facilitation. / Thesis (PhD (Psychotherapy))--University of Pretoria, 2006. / Psychology / unrestricted

Führung gilt als zentraler Einflussfaktor auf den Erfolg von Organisationen und Arbeitsgruppen. Im Gegensatz zu formalen Führungskräften, welche sich meistens in einer hierarchisch höhergestellten Leitungsposition innerhalb der Organisation befinden und meist von der Organisation mit einem gewissen Maß an Macht oder Autorität ausgestattet sind, entwickelt sich die informelle Führung durch das Verhalten der Teammitglieder untereinander und manifestiert sich in der interpersonalen Wahrnehmung. Informelle Führungsstrukturen haben Auswirkungen auf die Leistung von und Zufriedenheit in Teams. Damit jedoch Organisationen und Arbeitsgruppen von informellen Führungsstrukturen profitieren können, sind wissenschaftliche Erkenntnisse zu den genauen Antezedenzien, Wirkmechanismen und Bedingungen ihrer Entwicklung unabdingbar. Trotz der umfangreichen empirischen Evidenz zu den Antezedenzien und Auswirkungen informeller Führung, sind grundlegende Fragen zu den interpersonellen und intrapersonalen Prozessen noch unbeantwortet. Diese Dissertation leistet einen Beitrag zur informellen Führungsforschung durch die Analyse dynamischer Zusammenhänge objektiven, sowie subjektiv wahrgenommenen Verhaltens und der Wahrnehmung von Führung in Arbeitsgruppen. Die Kapitel der Dissertation stützen sich dabei auf drei zentrale theoretische Ansätze: Evolutionäre Führungstheorie, Theorien zur geteilten Führung, sowie Informationsverarbeitungstheorie. Das erste Kernkapitel der Dissertation stellt eine Integration und Synthese relevanter theoretischer Ansätze zu Verhalten und Führung in Arbeitsgruppen dar. Das zweite Kernkapitel befasst der Rolle kognitiver Schemata in der individuellen Wahrnehmung der informellen Führungsstruktur und der eigenen interpersonalen Kommunikation.:List of Tables 4 List of Figures 5 Abstract 6 Zusammenfassung 9 1. Introduction 13 1.1. Relevance 13 1.2. Research Objectives 15 1.3. Dissertation Structure 17 2. Core Constructs and Conceptual Clarifications 18 3. Theoretical Framework 19 3.1. Evolutionary Leadership Theory 20 3.2. Shared Leadership Theory 22 3.3. Information Processing Theories 23 4. Methodological Framework 28 4.1. Social Network Analysis 28 4.2. Temporal Dynamics of Social Networks 31 5. Status Quo of Research 33 5.1. Antecedents of Informal Leadership in Teams 34 5.1.1. Antecedents of team-level informal leadership structures 34 5.1.2. Individual (ego)-level predictors of informal leadership perceptions 35 5.1.3. Dyadic-level antecedents of informal leadership perceptions 36 5.2. Observable Behavior and Informal Leadership Perceptions 37 5.3. Longitudinal Developments: Stability and Change of Informal Leadership Perceptions 39 6. Overview of the Research Program 41 7. Observing Leadership as Behavior– An Evolutionary Approach to Theory and Research on Team-Level Leadership Structures 44 7.1. Introduction 46 7.2. Shared Leadership in Teams: The Role of Interpersonal Behavior 48 7.3. Propositions 52 7.4. Leadership Assessment in Ethology 57 7.5. Leadership as Dyadic Ties: Implications for the Assessment of Behavior-based Networks 59 7.5.1. Behavior directions 60 7.5.2. Interpersonal behavior sequences 63 7.5.3. Compiling dyadic behavior to the group level 66 7.6. Discussion 67 7.6.1. Theoretical implications 67 7.6.2. Methodological implications 69 7.6.4. Practical implications 70 7.6.5. Limitations and outlook 71 8. Perceiving Leadership in Teams: The Effects of Cognitive Schemas and Perceived Communication 73 8.1. Introduction 75 8.2. Individual Perceptions of Leadership in Team 77 8.3. Individual Differences and Perceptions of Leadership in Teams 79 8.4. Leadership Structure Schemas 80 8.5. The Mediating Role of Perceived Communication 82 8.6. The Moderating Role of Affective Motivation to Lead 84 8.7. Overall Model 87 8.8. Method 88 8.8.1. Sample 89 8.8.2. Measures 89 8.9. Results 92 8.9.1. Descriptive analysis 92 8.9.2. Analytical approac 93 8.9.3. Hypotheses testing 95 8.10. Discussion 100 8.10.1. Implications for research 101 8.10.2. Practical implications 104 8.10.3. Limitations 105 9. Adapting Leadership Perceptions across Tasks: Micro-Origins of Informal Leadership Transitions 106 9.1. Introduction 108 9.2. Informal Leadership in Teams 110 9.3. Stability and Change of Informal Leadership Perceptions 113 9.4. How do Leadership Perceptions Change? Social Interactions as Micro-Processes 114 9.5. When do Leadership Perceptions Change? The Role Perceived Shifts in Competence Allocation 117 9.6. Methods 121 9.6.1. Overview and sample 121 9.6.2. Baseline assessment (T0) 122 9.6.3. Laboratory measurement (T1) 122 9.7. Results 127 9.7.1. Descriptive analyses 127 9.7.2 Analytical approach 129 9.7.3. Tests of hypotheses 131 9.8. Discussion 134 9.8.1. Implications for informal leadership research 135 9.8.2. Limitations 139 9.8.3. Practical implications 141 9.8.4. Conclusions 142 10. General Discussion 143 10.1. Summary of Conceptual Propositions 143 10.2. Summary of the Empirical Findings 143 10.3. Integration and Theoretical Implications 145 10.3.1. Observable behavior versus perceived behavior 145 10.3.2. The nature and content of cognitive schemas 147 10.3.3. When and why leadership perceptions change 150 10.4. Practical Implications 151 10.5. Limitations 154 10.6. Future Research 155 10.7. Conclusion 156 11. References 159 12. Acknowledgements 181 13. Curriculum Vitae 183 14. Declaration 187 / Leadership is a central factor of influence for team and organizational success. Whereas formal leadership features the occupation of management positions within the organizational hierarchy, often accompanied by a certain degree of power and authority, informal leadership develops naturally through team members’ behavior and manifests in their interpersonal perceptions. Informal leadership structures of teams have an impact on their performance and satisfaction. However, for organizations and teams to benefit from informal leadership, insights to the antecedents, mechanisms, and moderators for the development are indispensable. Although a considerable amount of research attends to the antecedents and effects of informal leadership, fundamental questions regarding the interpersonal and intrapersonal processes are yet unanswered. This dissertation contributes to informal leadership research by providing analyses of the dynamic associations between behavior, perceived behavior, and leadership perceptions in work groups. The chapters therefore refer to three central theoretical approaches: Evolutionary Leadership Theory, Shared Leadership Theory, and theory on information processing. The first main chapter of the dissertation provides an integration and synthesis of the relevant theoretical approaches to behavior and leadership in teams. The second main chapter attends to the relevance of cognitive schemas in the individual perception of both the informal leadership structure and the own interpersonal communication. The third main chapter puts an additional focus on the dynamics of leadership perceptions on the level of dyadic relations. The theoretical propositions and empirical findings of this dissertation provide important first steps towards the fine-grained and multi-level analysis of the intra- and interindividual processes of the development and change of informal leadership perceptions in work teams, and the integration of future and past evidence in the overarching context of the meaning of leadership structures for group performance.:List of Tables 4 List of Figures 5 Abstract 6 Zusammenfassung 9 1. Introduction 13 1.1. Relevance 13 1.2. Research Objectives 15 1.3. Dissertation Structure 17 2. Core Constructs and Conceptual Clarifications 18 3. Theoretical Framework 19 3.1. Evolutionary Leadership Theory 20 3.2. Shared Leadership Theory 22 3.3. Information Processing Theories 23 4. Methodological Framework 28 4.1. Social Network Analysis 28 4.2. Temporal Dynamics of Social Networks 31 5. Status Quo of Research 33 5.1. Antecedents of Informal Leadership in Teams 34 5.1.1. Antecedents of team-level informal leadership structures 34 5.1.2. Individual (ego)-level predictors of informal leadership perceptions 35 5.1.3. Dyadic-level antecedents of informal leadership perceptions 36 5.2. Observable Behavior and Informal Leadership Perceptions 37 5.3. Longitudinal Developments: Stability and Change of Informal Leadership Perceptions 39 6. Overview of the Research Program 41 7. Observing Leadership as Behavior– An Evolutionary Approach to Theory and Research on Team-Level Leadership Structures 44 7.1. Introduction 46 7.2. Shared Leadership in Teams: The Role of Interpersonal Behavior 48 7.3. Propositions 52 7.4. Leadership Assessment in Ethology 57 7.5. Leadership as Dyadic Ties: Implications for the Assessment of Behavior-based Networks 59 7.5.1. Behavior directions 60 7.5.2. Interpersonal behavior sequences 63 7.5.3. Compiling dyadic behavior to the group level 66 7.6. Discussion 67 7.6.1. Theoretical implications 67 7.6.2. Methodological implications 69 7.6.4. Practical implications 70 7.6.5. Limitations and outlook 71 8. Perceiving Leadership in Teams: The Effects of Cognitive Schemas and Perceived Communication 73 8.1. Introduction 75 8.2. Individual Perceptions of Leadership in Team 77 8.3. Individual Differences and Perceptions of Leadership in Teams 79 8.4. Leadership Structure Schemas 80 8.5. The Mediating Role of Perceived Communication 82 8.6. The Moderating Role of Affective Motivation to Lead 84 8.7. Overall Model 87 8.8. Method 88 8.8.1. Sample 89 8.8.2. Measures 89 8.9. Results 92 8.9.1. Descriptive analysis 92 8.9.2. Analytical approac 93 8.9.3. Hypotheses testing 95 8.10. Discussion 100 8.10.1. Implications for research 101 8.10.2. Practical implications 104 8.10.3. Limitations 105 9. Adapting Leadership Perceptions across Tasks: Micro-Origins of Informal Leadership Transitions 106 9.1. Introduction 108 9.2. Informal Leadership in Teams 110 9.3. Stability and Change of Informal Leadership Perceptions 113 9.4. How do Leadership Perceptions Change? Social Interactions as Micro-Processes 114 9.5. When do Leadership Perceptions Change? The Role Perceived Shifts in Competence Allocation 117 9.6. Methods 121 9.6.1. Overview and sample 121 9.6.2. Baseline assessment (T0) 122 9.6.3. Laboratory measurement (T1) 122 9.7. Results 127 9.7.1. Descriptive analyses 127 9.7.2 Analytical approach 129 9.7.3. Tests of hypotheses 131 9.8. Discussion 134 9.8.1. Implications for informal leadership research 135 9.8.2. Limitations 139 9.8.3. Practical implications 141 9.8.4. Conclusions 142 10. General Discussion 143 10.1. Summary of Conceptual Propositions 143 10.2. Summary of the Empirical Findings 143 10.3. Integration and Theoretical Implications 145 10.3.1. Observable behavior versus perceived behavior 145 10.3.2. The nature and content of cognitive schemas 147 10.3.3. When and why leadership perceptions change 150 10.4. Practical Implications 151 10.5. Limitations 154 10.6. Future Research 155 10.7. Conclusion 156 11. References 159 12. Acknowledgements 181 13. Curriculum Vitae 183 14. Declaration 187

Crisis preparedness is the responsibility of every person, business, and leader, and leadership behavioral skills are an essential characteristic of crisis preparedness. The purpose of this case study was to explore the decisions of elected leaders along the Gulf Coast during Hurricanes Katrina and Ike in order to understand their leadership behaviors in crisis preparedness. The conceptual framework was based on the emergency management theory presented by McEntire in 2004, which helped to define the necessary components for leaders' successful crisis preparedness. Data were collected through interviews with 5 members from the National Emergency Management Agency along with a document review of elected leader responses and decisions during both Hurricanes Katrina and Ike from government reports, previous studies, and scholarly articles. Data were interpretively analyzed by listing out several leadership models and the behaviors that identify them and then by reviewing the document study information in 2 matrices for methodological triangulation and data saturation. The findings highlighted 5 emerging themes named as the five Cs of crisis preparedness: compassion, continuity, communication, common sense, and confidence. This study may contribute to social change by identifying key leadership traits that governors and other elected leaders should use in crisis preparedness, which may contribute to the safety, health, and well-being of constituents during a natural disaster.

The problem of this study was to determine the nature of the perceptions of leadership behavior held by deans and directors of student development/student personnel services in Texas community/junior colleges. The directors were further identified as directors of counseling and guidance, student activities, admissions and records, financial aid, job placement, and health services. Deans and directors from all Texas community/junior colleges constituted the population for this group and were selected from college catalogs and a professional directory. Ranking and correlation techniques were used in the statistical analysis of data. Results indicated that leadership behaviors exist which are common to the field of student development/student personnel services, and that jurors generally agreed with deans and directors on those leadership behaviors which they perceived to be the most and least important to leadership. In addition, deans and directors agreed on those behaviors which they perceived to be the most and least important to leadership in their position and area of responsibility. Data revealed that deans and directors placed a high priority on collaborative-interactive type behaviors and a low priority on administrative-related behaviors.

Hälso- och sjukvården har genomgått stora förändringar genom åren och är idag en central del av vårt välfärdssamhälle. Utvecklingen går mot en mer primärvårdscentrerad vård vilket gör att hälso- och sjukvården står inför nya utmaningar gällande bland annat resursfördelning och prioriteringar. Idag styrs hälso- och sjukvården i allt större utsträckning av ekonomiska incitament där kopplingen till ersättning utgår från bland annat måluppfyllelse, prestation och resursinsatser. Hur ersättningsmodellerna utformas skiljer sig åt mellan olika huvudmän och varje huvudman utformar sin vårdvalsmodell efter sina prioriteringar av primärvårdsmålen.   Syftet med studien är att analysera om de olika ersättningsmodellerna i primärvården understödjer de mål man arbetar mot samt vilka erfarenheter aktörerna inom hälso- och sjukvården, dvs. politiker, administrativ ledning och profession, har av ersättningsmodellernas effekter.   För att studera hur ersättningsmodellen understödjer verksamhetsmålen i primärvården har två fallorganisationer valts ut, Landstinget Blekinge och Region Jönköpings län, där en komparativ forskningsdesign tillämpats. Data för den teoretiska referensramen utgår från publicerade artiklar, böcker och övrigt informationsmaterial från myndigheter. Primärdata har inhämtats från sex kvalitativa, semistrukturerade intervjuer. Sekundärdata för studien består av insamlad data från respektive region/landsting.   Att använda en ersättningsmodell för resursfördelning i primärvården anses vara ett bra styrmedel då monetära ersättningar motiverar. Målen tillgänglighet, jämlik vård, hög kvalité, personcentrerad vård, patientsäkerhet tillsammans med kostnadseffektiv vård kan ibland motverka varandra. God kostnadskontroll prioriteras ofta i styrningen samtidigt ger uppföljning och kontroll behov av mycket administration, vilket motverkar målet kostnadseffektiv vård.   Att styra primärvården med ersättningsmodeller är effektivt då monetär ersättning är inblandad men modellen används inte i första hand att styra mot mål utan för kostnadskontroll. Erfarenheterna av ersättningsmodellens effekter är att de ibland motverkar målen för hälso-och sjukvården och får oönskade effekter såsom manipulation av data och fokus på att det man utför genererar högre ersättning. Uppföljningen av ersättningsmodellerna kräver också mycket administration. / The health care system has undergone major changes over the years and is today a central part of our welfare society. The trend is to direct citizens towards the Primary Health Care sector, making the health care system face new challenges.  The primary challenges are related to the allocation of resources and guiding priorities for this. Today, health care is increasingly controlled by economic incentives, where the link to compensation is based on, compensation models. How the compensation model is designed varies between different principal stakeholders whom are designing their care choice model after its own priorities of primary health care objectives.   The aim of the current study is to analyse whether the different compensation models in primary care supports the goal to work towards and what experience the different operators, politicians, administrative management and profession, have of compensation models ' effects.   To study how the compensation model supports business goals in primary care two organizations has been selected, County Council of Jönköping and Blekinge on which a comparative research design has been applied. Data for the theoretical frame of reference is based on published articles, books and other information material from the authorities. Primary data has been gathered from six qualitative, semi-structured interviews. Secondary data for the study consists of data collected from each region/County Councils.   To use a compensation model for the allocation of resources in primary health care is considered to be a good instrument in which monetary remuneration justifies. Objectives as availability, equal treatment, high quality care, person-centred care, patient safety, along with cost-effective care can sometimes counteract with each other. Good cost control is often a priority when governing health care operations, monitoring and control the business needs much administration, thus undermining the objective of cost effective care.   Compensation model is effective way to control primary health care since monetary compensation is involved but the model is not used primarily to steer towards the target but for cost control. The experience of the effects of the compensation model is that they sometimes act counterproductive towards goal for the health care system and you might receiving unwanted effects as manipulation of data and focus what you can do to generate more compensation.  A vast amount of administration is needed to follow up compensation models.