Rodents solve dual-solution tasks that require navigation to a goal by adopting either a hippocampus-dependent place strategy or a striatum-dependent stimulus–response strategy. The current experiments investigated the preference for learning strategy as a function of biological sex and anxiety level in rats prior to the onset of puberty, before the activational effects of gonadal hormones influence these processes. In the first experiment, a significant proportion of prepubertal males preferred a stimulus-response strategy on a dual-solution visible platform water maze task at 28 days of age, in contrast to age-matched prepubertal females or adult males. In the second experiment, prepubertal males categorized as high in trait anxiety on an open field task exhibited a bias toward stimulus–response strategy, whereas age-matched females exhibited no preference in strategy regardless of anxiety level. In the third experiment, pups were separated from dams for either 15 or 180 min per day during the first 2 weeks of life and tested for anxiety and learning strategy preference. Prolonged maternal separations were linked to elevated anxiety and a bias for stimulus-response strategy in prepubertal males but not females. In the fourth experiment, prepubertal males and rats preferring a stimulus-response strategy expressed a lower ratio of muscarinic binding in the hippocampus relative to the striatum compared to prepubertal females and place learners, respectively. In the fifth experiment, prepubertal females masculinized by injections of testosterone shortly after birth preferred a stimulus-response strategy similar to that of prepubertal males and unlike vehicle-treated females. In the sixth experiment, prepubertal females expressed greater dendritic complexity and spine density in the CA1 region of the hippocampus than males at the exact age at which sex differences in learning strategy preference were found in the first five experiments. This series of experiments indicates that, in contrast to prepubertal female rats, prepubertal males displayed a clear preference for a striatum-based stimulus-response strategy when learning a dual-solution task. Furthermore, several variables were identified as contributing to this sex difference, including the impact of male anxiety on strategy preference, lower male hippocampus-to-striatum ratios of muscarinic binding, and delayed structural development of the male hippocampus. / acase@tulane.edu

Vocabulary learning strategies and word knowledge are two central factors in learning a foreign language. Researchers have acknowledged the vital role of vocabulary in second language acquisition. This particular study is trying to fill a void by looking at high-school aged learners, by looking at beginning learners of German and by looking at the expression of word knowledge and strategy use qualitatively. The research methodology for this study is qualitative and exploratory in nature. The participants of this study are 29 high-school students, who participated in a vocabulary review game and filled out exit slips following the game. Of these students, 13 participated in a follow-up interview in which the prompts from the review game were discussed and analyzed. The study revealed beginning learners of German use a variety of learning strategies. Students preferred semantic context over linguistic and social context. They were also able to describe vocabulary items in the target language German, without major breakdowns in communication. Students tried to avoid the use of the German articles and confused grammatical terminology at times. Overall, students knew high frequency vocabulary and how to use it.

本研究主要探討台北市國中生的單字能力及性別差異是否影響其英語單字策略的使用。主要目標欲(1)探究三組單字能力組別在單字策略使用上的差異；(2)探討男女生使用單字策略的頻率；(3)發現單字策略使用上的性別差異；(4)確認單字能力組別內，在單字策略使用上的性別差異；以及(5)從性別的角度來說明單字策略使用的規則。 共有來自台北市區一所國中的203位學生參與本研究。研究工具為單字策略使用問卷及英語單字能力測驗。前者用來引出學生所認為的單字策略使用方式，而後者則是用來將學生依單字能力分成高中低三組。資料分析採用SPSS 12.0版本，分析工具包含描述性統計、單因子變異數分析、及獨立樣本t檢定。本研究結果指出(1)單字能力越高的學生，傾向使用較多的單字策略，尤以決定策略、社會策略、記憶策略、及後設認知策略最為顯著。(2)整體而言，男生及女生使用單字策略的頻率皆不高。男女生皆最常使用決定策略，最少使用後設認知策略。(3)除在整體策略、決定策略、記憶策略、認知策略有顯著較高的使用頻率外，女生也比男生較常使用與歸類相關單字、運用學習工具作手寫練習、及聽力練習等相關的單一策略。(4)單字能力組別內，亦發現十七個單一策略具有顯著的性別差異。大部份策略顯示女生運用的頻率較高。然而高分組男生使用聽英文廣播及想像單字畫面比高分組女生較頻繁，且中間組別的男生較女生常使用分析字根字首。(5)對男女生而言，發音及意思是學習單字中最難的兩部份。雙方在有效的策略上有所共識，但在無效果的策略上意見有些分歧。至於教師協助的需求方面，男生偏好動態的單字練習，女生則較喜歡靜態的學業練習。 最後，本研究建議教師應該(1)介紹學生更多元的單字策略，尤其是低成就的學生；(2)進行以策略為主的教學時，將性別差異納入考量；(3)就單字能力及性別差異的交互關係，進一步了解學生單字策略的偏好。 / This study investigated vocabulary proficiency and gender differences in English vocabulary learning strategies (VLS) used by junior high school students in Taipei. The goals were to (1) explore the differences in VLS use among three vocabulary scoring levels, (2) to investigate the frequencies use of VLS by male and female students, (3) to find out gender differences in VLS use, (4) to indentify gender difference in VLS use in terms of vocabulary scoring level, and (5) to illustrate the patterns of VLS use in gender perspectives. A total of 203 junior high school students from an urban school in Taipei City were involved in the study. A vocabulary learning strategy questionnaire (VLSQ) and an English vocabulary proficiency test (EVPT) were administered as instruments. The former was used to elicit the self-report strategy use by the students and the latter was utilized to categorize the participants into three vocabulary levels. The data was analyzed by employing SPSS version 12.0, including descriptive analysis, one-way analysis of variance, and independent t-Tests. A summary of the results are as follows. (1) The higher vocabulary level students belonged to, the more VLS they tended to apply, especially determination strategies, social strategies, memory strategies and metacognitvie strategies. (2) Both male and female students could be regarded as moderate users of VLS. Both groups favored determination strategies the most and metacognitive strategies the least. (3) Besides a significantly more frequent use of overall strategies, determination strategies, memory strategies and cognitive strategies, female students also tended to use more often individual strategies concerning grouping related words together, writing practice with study aids and auditory practice. (4) Significances found in each scoring group seemed to favor female students in strategy use, except three strategies, analyzed affixes and roots by the Intermediate-Scoring group, listening to English broadcast and image word’s meanings by the High-Scoring group. (5) To both genders, the most difficult aspects in learning vocabulary are pronunciation and meanings. As for the effectiveness of VLS, male and female students had the same opinions on the most five but thought slightly differently on the least five. Besides, sharing some similar needs for teachers’ assistance, male students preferred dynamic vocabulary activities but female students favored academic vocabulary practice. The findings suggest teachers should (1) introduce a variety of VLS to students, particularly those of lower levels, (2) take gender differences into consideration when administering strategies-based instruction, and (3) be aware of students’ preferences of VLS use with both gender and vocabulary level perspectives.

The experiments described in this thesis tested whether encouraging the use of self-regulatory learning strategies enhances the effectiveness of autonomous study for novices in a learning domain. Previous research and theory have suggested that high-achieving students are proficient at self-regulating their learning, and they do so using a range of learning strategies for planning their study, monitoring the effectiveness of their efforts and elaborating their knowledge. Information processing theories of instructional design suggest that learning is optimal when working memory load is managed effectively. Accordingly, methods have been devised for reducing load associated with unnecessary task requirements, as well as dedicating additional capacity to the construction and automation of knowledge schemas. Less is known, however, about instructional methods for encouraging self-regulatory learning strategies. Experiments 1, 2 and 4 examined the effect of encouraging participants to reflect on their understanding of topics they had been taught previously. Although these participants were able to accurately estimate their level of understanding in some situations, they failed to consistently use this knowledge to guide their study of topics they had previously understood poorly. In light of this finding, Experiments 3 and 5 examined the effect of encouraging participants to plan a free study period, with the direction to prioritise the topics that they had understood the least well. This intervention had a modest positive effect on post-test performance. Experiment 6 examined the effect of encouraging two elaborative strategies, namely explanation generation and summarisation. The former benefited performance, whereas the effectiveness of the latter depended on the comprehensiveness of the summaries produced by the participants. Finally, Experiment 7 examined the effect of providing broad-spectrum instruction in learning strategies, with minimal requirements to engage in specific strategies. This intervention resulted in an overall benefit to performance. Overall, the results of this dissertation suggest that certain instructional aids for self-regulation yield benefits to the autonomous study by domain novices without overburdening working memory.

This research study presents an investigation of interpreter trainees acquiring New Zealand Sign Language (NZSL) as a second language (L2) outside their formal classroom learning. This study was motivated firstly by a concern that a considerable reduction in learner and lecturer contact hours within an NZSL interpreting programme would compromise graduate NZSL competency, necessitating a compensatory approach predominantly in the context of the Deaf community. Secondly, the study attempts to address a marked gap in research related to L2 sign language learning from a socio-cultural perspective. Semi-structured interviews were conducted in a bilingual context (NZSL and English) in order to gain the ‘inside’ perspectives of six NZSL learners who had just completed a two-year Diploma in Sign Language Interpreting. The interviews sought to uncover the informal NZSL language learning opportunities used by the participants, especially within the social context of the Deaf community, and the individual learner strategies utilised by ‘good learners’ of NZSL. Interview data were transcribed and were analysed by employing qualitative methods. Coding of the data revealed a number of categories which were subsequently examined for salient themes relating to the research questions. The main findings of the study revolved around the significance of L2 learner access to social and material resources, especially within the Deaf socio-cultural context. Of particular significance was the enhancement of learner motivation and confidence as was the frequency and depth of interaction with Deaf people and degree of mediated NZSL learning from NZSL mentors. Of key importance were the social relationships and networks developed with L1 users, which facilitated access to an array of NZSL learning opportunities. Material language learning resources, such as NZSL video samples and equipment were also useful, when interaction with Deaf people was not possible due to heavy study demands, especially in the second year of the programme. Learner involvement in the Deaf community, particularly within Deaf social networks, resulted in significantly improved linguistic, pragmatic and socio-cultural competency. The findings of the study raise two main implications. Firstly, the study highlights the need for NZSL interpreting curriculum enrichment and the resourcing of the programme to foster learner autonomy. Secondly, to date there has been little research on adult L2 sign language learning outside the classroom context and the study may stimulate further studies of the acquisition of sign language as a second language. The study may also be of benefit to autonomous L2 sign language learners and stakeholders in sign language interpreting education around the world.

<p>Det pedagogiska intresset för ”lärstilar” har under senaste åren ökat och barns individualitet i skriftspråkstillägnandet uttrycks även i andra sammanhang. Syftet med denna studie är att belysa och diskutera hur man kan se på och arbeta med barns olika sätt att lära i läs- och skrivundervisningen. Vidare är studien inriktad mot att belysa studieområdet ur en vidare kontext då den empiriska undersökningen genomförts både i Sverige och i Costa Rica med en kombination av intervjuer och observationer. Utifrån en kulturell och utbildningspolitisk kontext belyses variationer och likheter i lärarnas möjligheter och förutsättningar att beakta barns olika sätt att lära sig skriftspråket. Av resultatet framkommer att lärarna påvisar en viss form av beaktande av barns olika sätt att lära skriftspråket främst i form av en inriktning mot individualisering utifrån varje individs nivå och arbetstakt. De uppvisar en ambition att individanpassa undervisningen både i Sverige och i Costa Rica men undervisningen förefaller trots detta vara inriktad mot gemensamma moment. Genom att variera den gemensamma undervisningen, bland annat genom att blanda analytiska och syntetiska läs- och skrivmetoder, försöker lärarna tillgodose barns olika sätt att lära. De intervjuade lärarna framhåller dessutom motivationen hos eleverna som en avgörande faktor för ett framgångsrikt skriftspråkstillägnande och poängterar underhållande arbetssätt och skapandet av intresse hos eleverna som betydelsefulla inslag i undervisningen. Vidare tyder studiens resultat på att till skillnad mot i Sverige framhålls i Costa Rica verbala förmågor då observationer och styrdokument visar på en fokusering av muntliga undervisningsformer. Studiens resultat antyder dessutom att förutsättningar och möjligheter att beakta barns olika sätt att tillägna sig skriftspråket skiljer sig åt mellan de olika kontexterna, främst i form av att de ekonomiska resurserna i Costa Rica inte möjliggör förverkligande av lärarnas pedagogiska ambitioner.</p>

<p>Being a skilled reader makes it easier to learn a new language. It is important to teach students how the knowledge and use of reading strategies can facilitate learning. This study was made in a Swedish fourth grade class with eighteen participant pupils. They were asked to translate two texts from English into Swedish: one was a poem with nonsense words, and the other a prose text. The texts were taken from <em>Through the Looking Glass</em> by Lewis Carroll and <em>The Garbage King</em> by Elizabeth Laird. After this an interview was made with all of the pupils in pairs, where they were asked about their reading strategies normally and in this situation. The results found were that the reading strategies used were: <em>likeness with their native language</em>, <em>previous vocabulary knowledge of the L2</em>, <em>syntactic knowledge</em>,<em> </em>and<em> guessing the meaning through the context</em>. The result confirms previous research in that the pupils who liked reading and did so in their spare time, did better when it came to making syntactically correct translations.</p>

In einer Längsschnittstudie mit 215 Schülern der achten Klasse wurde der Zusammenhang zwischen selbstgesteuertem Lernen, motivationalen (Zielorientierungen, Selbstwirksamkeit, schulischer Affekt) und kognitiven Variablen (Intelligenz) sowie Leistungsindikatoren (Schulleistung, Noten) erhoben. Selbstgesteuertes Lernen wurde mit Hilfe eines strukturierten Interviews (Zimmerman, 1986) und eines Lernstrategie-Fragebogens erfasst. Zum einen zeigte sich, dass die Lernstrategie-Angaben im Interview und im Fragebogen in keiner bedeutsamen Beziehung zueinander standen. Zum anderen ergaben sich deutliche Unterschiede in der Vorhersage der Leistungsindikatoren. Die per Interview erfassten Lernstrategien besaßen sowohl Vorhersagekraft bezüglich Schulnoten und Schulleistung und zeigten signifikante Zusammenhänge zu den individuellen Zielorientierungen, dem schulischen Affekt und der Selbstwirksamkeit. Darüber hinaus konnten Leistungsveränderungen von der achten zur neunten Klasse vorhergesagt werden. Der parallel eingesetzte Lernstrategie-Fragebogen leistete im Vergleich dazu keine Erklärung der Leistungsvarianz. Implikationen für die Diagnostik selbstgesteuerten Lernens werden diskutiert. / This longitudinal study examined relationships between self-regulated learning, motivational orientations, self-efficacy and academic performance in a sample of 215 8th-graders. Self-regulated learning was assessed with both a German adaptation of the Self-Regulated Learning Interview (Zimmerman & Martinez-Pons, 1986) and a learning strategy questionnaire. Results indicated that strategies students reported in the interview were nearly 0-correlated with their answers in the questionnaire. Questionnaire scores did not predict changes in grades and achievement test scores over one year, but learning strategies assessed with the interview did. Further deep-processing strategies were positively related with self-efficacy and task-orientation. Implications for the assessment of self-regulated learning are discussed. <br><br> ---- <br>Anmerkung:<br> Die Autorin ist Trägerin des von der Universitätsgesellschaft Potsdam e.V. vergebenen Wissenschaftspreises zur Förderung des wissenschaftlichen Nachwuchses für die beste Dissertation des Jahres 2003/2004 an der Universität Potsdam.

Under de senare åren har det gjorts stora framsteg inom neurologin vad gäller koppling hjärna – inlärning. Tidigare ansågs intelligens vara något bestämt och oföränderligt, men nu hävdar neurologerna att människan själv sätter gränsen för sin intelligens. Alla människor har förmågan att förbättra och utveckla sin intelligens. För att lyckas med detta bör främst två väsentliga faktorer beaktas i skolan: dels att alla är unika och har olika sätt att inhämta information, dels att det är avgörande om människan befinner sig i en stimulerande miljö eller inte. Det är alltså av stor vikt hur skolmiljön ser ut för våra elever för bästa möjliga inlärning. Jag vill med detta arbete visa att genom att förstå vilka principer som styr hjärnans funktioner kan vi lärare bli bättre på att lära våra elever att lära. Studien belyser dels hjärnans uppbyggnad och vad den har för koppling till och betydelse för inlärningen, dels belyser jag tre olika inlärningsteorier och ger praktisk/pedagogiska exempel på hur de kan användas i en klassrumssituation.

This qualitative study investigates the relationship between the principal MentorCoach and the principal Mentee in terms of the learning that is taking place between these two individuals. This study addresses a gap in the Mentoring/Coaching literature as little is known about how the professional knowledge of participants is influenced through participation in educational leadership Mentoring/Coaching programs. This study also links to current interest in knowledge mobilization and the interaction between research and practitioner knowledge. In broad terms, the research will investigate what kind of knowledge is being incorporated in principal MentoringCoaching relationships in the programs sampled. With its deeper analysis of the knowledge and learning strategies that are being used in the MentoringCoaching experience, this research is of particular interest to future participating administrators and school districts developing MentoringCoaching programs as a vehicle for supporting and enriching the experience of new principals as school leaders.