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Att Polismyndigheten har svårt att klara upp fall av dödligt våld i kriminella miljöer är ett problem som är vida känt i dagens Sverige. I kriminalstatistiken påvisas ett ökat skjutvapenvåld, och studier samt personliga utsagor vittnar om en utbredd tystnadskultur inom kriminella kretsar och utsatta områden. Denna studie uppmärksammar den problematik som finns kopplad till utredningar av dödligt våld i kriminella miljöer. Intervjuer har gjorts med fem utredare som är, eller nyligen har arbetat, med dessa ärenden inom Polismyndigheten. Materialet har analyserats med hjälp av en kvalitativ innehållsanalys, och resultatet har kopplats till teorierna rational choice, broken windows, samt organisatoriskt lärande. I resultatet har identifierats svårigheter kopplade den resursbrist som tydligt framkommit under studiens gång, där det efterfrågas ett större antal utredare samt bredare kompetens, kunskap och erfarenhet. Vidare har framkommit att det förekommer svårigheter i att få människor att vittna vid dessa typer av brott. Slutligen efterfrågas av intervjupersonerna större legala möjligheter i form av övervakning. / The purpose of this study was to examine what investigative difficulties are associated with investigations of lethal violence in criminal environments. We wanted to investigate which factors tend to complicate the work for Polismyndigheten. Furthermore, we discussed the consequences that the low rate of resolved cases has on society and how it's connected to crime prevention. The material was gathered from five semi-structured interviews and the result from these was analyzed with previous studies on the subject as well as rational choice theory, broken windows theory and organizational learning theory. The result showed that difficulties related to lack of resources was a clear theme in all the interviews. This is primarily connected to a need for more investigators in the relevant sections as well as a broader set of skills, knowledge and experience distributed over the entire workforce. Furthermore, the study showed that there is a problem regarding getting witnesses to give their statements to the police during investigations of lethal violence in criminal environments. Finally, greater legal possibilities regarding surveillance were identified as a part of the result.

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yes / Two recent detailed reports, by the U.K Northern Ireland Office (NIO) - January 2004 1 and the U.S. Council on Foreign Relations (CFR) - February 2004 2, provide further insights into current policy and technology developments in the U.K. and U.S. The NIO report is the 4th and final report of a U.K wide Steering Group set up by the Secretary of State for Northern Ireland in Summer 2000, with the objective: To establish whether a less potentially lethal alternative to baton rounds is available; and to review the public order equipment which is presently available, or could be developed, in order to expand the range of tactical options available to operational commanders. 3 In her foreword to the report Jane Kennedy, Minister of State for Northern Ireland notes that: Despite a protracted and international search for a commercially available product, we have been unable to find anything that meets the criteria of an acceptable, potentially less lethal alternative to the baton round currently in service which provides an effective capability that does not expose officers and the public to greater risk in violent public disorder.4 The NIO Report has sections looking at the Defence Science and Technology Laboratory (DSTL) programme on the development of less lethal technologies (particularly the Attenuating Energy Projectile and the Discriminating Irritant Projectile); commercial off the shelf product evaluations and update (12 Gauge Sock Round Assessment); Water Cannon; the U.K. use of less lethal technologies (with a focus on L21A1 baton rounds, CS sprays and the Taser). The report also contains a section entitled `The Management of Conflict¿ which discusses the dynamics of crowd behaviour. For a critical response to the NIO report see that from Dr. Brian Rappert.5 The CFR report provides a strong endorsement for non-lethal weapons. A key finding states: Wider integration of nonlethal weapons into the U.S. Army and Marine Corps could have reduced damage, saved lives, and helped to limit the widespread looting and sabotage that occurred after the cessation of major conflict in Iraq. Incorporating NLW capabilities into the equipment, training and doctrine of the armed services could substantially improve U.S. effectiveness in conflict, post-conflict, and homeland defense. 6 Interestingly, in describing the nonlethal capability sets (NLCS) which have been deployed in Kosovo and Iraq, and which help to provide a continuum of force between ¿don¿t shoot¿ and ¿shoot¿ 7, the CFR seems to distinguish between NLWs (rubber balls [grenades and shotgun munitions], bean bags, riot shields, Tasers, net entanglers, and caltrops), and equipment such as flash-bang grenades, laser dazzlers, and bullhorns of which it states ¿It is important to note that these are not weapons but non-lethal capabilities¿ 8 The CFR recommends expanded deployment of NLWs in the armed services, longer ranges for non-lethal payloads using precision delivery and fusing systems, and further development of millimetre-wave area-denial system (HPM weapons such as VMADS) and the advanced tactical laser (ATL). The report also argues for the need to have a bigger Joint Non-Lethal Weapons Directorate (JNLWD) or a new Non-lethal Joint Program Office (NLJPO) and for Bradford Non-Lethal Weapons Research Project (BNLWRP) ¿ Research Report 5 (May 2004) 2 closer links with the Joint Forces Command (JFCOM). In the opinion of the authors the JNLWD should also have more access into classified programmes throughout all branches of the armed services so as not to duplicate non-lethal development initiatives. To stimulate incorporation of NLWs throughout the U.S. Armed Services the CFR advocates two approaches: (1) top-down planning in the Defense department and (2) creation of demand for these [NLWs] weapons from the field as personnel gain experience with prototype equipment. 9 They argue there is a need for the top-level military and civilian leadership to be educated about NLW capabilities, not only for warfighting and peacekeeping, but also in `homeland defence in isolating a hot zone in the aftermath of a biological attack' 10. We will be referring again to both the NIO and CFR publications in other sections of this report.

En intégrant cette étude dans un contexte d'écologie du stress, l'objectif général de cette thèse est d'une part d'évaluer l'exposition et les effets des éléments traces métalliques (ETMs)et du parasitisme chez le mulot sylvestre (apodemus sylvaticus) et d'autre part de contribuer au développement de marqueurs d'exposition et d'effets toxiques non létaux. Au cours de trois sessions de capture, des individus ont été collectés dur 30 sites localisés autour de l'ancienne fonderie de Metaleurop (Nord-Pas-de-Calais) les concentrations en Cd et Pb ont été mesurées dans les organes cibles (foie et reins) et dans les poils des mulots. différents biomarqueurs d'effets toxiques létaux et non létaux ont également été mesurés. Le nombre important de mulots prélevé (n=886) a permis d'étudier l'influence des caractéristiques individuelles (âge et sexe) et des caractéristique paysagères sur les réponses des biomarqueurs. Les résultats indiquent que les concentrations en ETMs des animaux vivants sur les sites les plus contaminés s'avèrent significativement plus importantes que celles mesurées sur les autres sites. En outre, plus de 25% des mulots provenant des sites des plis pollués présente des concentrations supérieures aux seuils toxiques et ont donc un risque accru de développer des pathologies (œdème, cancers). Par ailleurs, cette étude révèle également que ETMs chez le mulot est influencée par les caractéristiques, individuelles (âge et sexe), par l'occupation des sols et qu'elle varie en fonction de la session de capture. De plus, les résultats montrent que les concentrations ETMs [...] et les caractéristiques paysagères modulent les prévalences de certains parasites. En effet, la richesse parasitaire augmente chez les individus les plus exposés aux ETMs. Ces concentrations influencent également les différents biomarqueurs d'effets létaux [...] et non létaux [...]évalués. Ces résultats illustrent donc l'intérêt du développement de biomarqueurs on létaux pour l'évaluation des effets toxiques des ETMs les plus élevées présentent des atteintes au niveau individuel [...] et au niveau cellulaire [...] Cependant, étant donnés les effets potentiels de parasitisme sur la santé de la faune sauvage, les liens de causalité entre la présence d' ETMs et les atteintes observées sont discutables. Ce travail de thèse souligne l'intérêt des approches multi-stress dans le cadre de l'évaluation de la santé de la faune sauvage. / By integrating this study in a stess-ecology Framework, the aim of this thesis is to assess exposure and effects of trace metals (TMs) and parasitism on wood mouse[…] and to contribute to the development of non-lethal exposure and toxicity makers […].This study also reveals that the accumulations of the TMs in wood mice is influenced by individual characteristics […] and landscape features and varies according to the trapping session. In addition, results show that the concentrations of TMs […] and landscape characteristics modulate the prevalence of some parasites. […].However, given the potential effects of parasitism on animals’ health, the causal links between the presence of TMs and observed alterations are questionable. This work emphasizes the importance of multi-stress approaches on wildlife’s health assessment.

The aim of this study was to investigate the usefulness of image analysis for studying mite behaviour. Image analysis was used to convert video recordings of mites' locomotory behaviour into a series of x,y coordinates that, when joined, closely resemble the paths of mites. The coordinates were also used to calculate walking speed, direction of travel, turning frequency, turn bias and tortuosity. Two experimental arenas were developed and used to study the movement of three mite species: 1) a leaf disc arena for two-spotted spider mite, Tetranychus urticae Koch and European red mite, Panonychus ulmi (Koch); and 2), a cover-slip/tack-trap arena for Typhlodromus pyri Scheuten. Two-spotted spider mite exhibited a change in locomotory behaviour through a 48 minute period. Mites exhibited a significant decline in distance travelled, whereas the mean stationary time (per four minute interval) more than doubled, and the duration of stationary events increased steadily over the same period. A reduction in sampling frequency of mite coordinates from one per second to one every two seconds and every four seconds produced a 5% and 12% 'loss' in path length respectively. Sample period length was shown to greatly influence the results produced for some of the mean parameters calculated, however, a reduction in sample length from 3000 to 1500 coordinates was not considered to cause a major loss in information. The influence of the inherent mite movement could not be ignored and made it difficult to make decisions on the 'best' sample length to use. Some strong correlations were found between parameters used to analyse mite locomotory behaviour. In particular, arithmetic mean vector length, speed, total stationary time and total distance travelled were significantly correlated with each other. Mean angular deviation and weighted mean vector length, which both measure the degree of clustering around the mean heading angle, were strongly negatively correlated. Parameters which differentiated between 'straight' and 'tortuous' mite movement were found to be mean meander, absolute mean turn and fractal dimensions. Mean meander was thought to be the most 'powerful', while coefficient of a straight line, a commonly used parameter for measuring tortuosity, did not significantly differentiate between the two different behaviours. Frequency distributions of turns and standard deviations of the three mite species were very similar. All three species had a slight bias to turning right (clockwise) rather than to the left (counter-clockwise) and for each species certain angles occurred more often than would be expected in a 'perfect' normal distribution. A similar pattern also occurred with the frequency distribution of two-spotted spider mite heading angles, in that angles which were expected to occur more often, did not, and vice versa. The potential to use saturated salt solutions to control relative humidity on the arena was` demonstrated and indicated that relative humidity is likely to have an important influence on mite behaviour. Two-spotted spider mites appeared to move more quickly in an attempt to escape the unfavourable, extreme (10% and 95% R.H. at 25°C) moisture conditions. All three mite species displayed a characteristic edge-walking behaviour around the arenas. However, when 'edge' and 'non-edge' behaviours were compared, mean meander was the only parameter (of the parameters tested) which gave a significant difference. Behavioural responses of European red mite and T. pyri to sub-lethal (field rate) esfenvalerate were investigated and the results indicated that these mites did not seek the unsprayed halves of the arenas during the first 48 minutes. However, significant differences in most behavioural parameters to esfenvalerate residues were found with European red mite when whole arenas were compared. Image analysis is an extremely useful research tool for studying mite behaviour because of its ability to measure many parameters quickly. Careful choice of the environmental conditions, the sampling framework, and interpretation of data is essential for meaningful results.

The aim of this study was to investigate the usefulness of image analysis for studying mite behaviour. Image analysis was used to convert video recordings of mites' locomotory behaviour into a series of x,y coordinates that, when joined, closely resemble the paths of mites. The coordinates were also used to calculate walking speed, direction of travel, turning frequency, turn bias and tortuosity. Two experimental arenas were developed and used to study the movement of three mite species: 1) a leaf disc arena for two-spotted spider mite, Tetranychus urticae Koch and European red mite, Panonychus ulmi (Koch); and 2), a cover-slip/tack-trap arena for Typhlodromus pyri Scheuten. Two-spotted spider mite exhibited a change in locomotory behaviour through a 48 minute period. Mites exhibited a significant decline in distance travelled, whereas the mean stationary time (per four minute interval) more than doubled, and the duration of stationary events increased steadily over the same period. A reduction in sampling frequency of mite coordinates from one per second to one every two seconds and every four seconds produced a 5% and 12% 'loss' in path length respectively. Sample period length was shown to greatly influence the results produced for some of the mean parameters calculated, however, a reduction in sample length from 3000 to 1500 coordinates was not considered to cause a major loss in information. The influence of the inherent mite movement could not be ignored and made it difficult to make decisions on the 'best' sample length to use. Some strong correlations were found between parameters used to analyse mite locomotory behaviour. In particular, arithmetic mean vector length, speed, total stationary time and total distance travelled were significantly correlated with each other. Mean angular deviation and weighted mean vector length, which both measure the degree of clustering around the mean heading angle, were strongly negatively correlated. Parameters which differentiated between 'straight' and 'tortuous' mite movement were found to be mean meander, absolute mean turn and fractal dimensions. Mean meander was thought to be the most 'powerful', while coefficient of a straight line, a commonly used parameter for measuring tortuosity, did not significantly differentiate between the two different behaviours. Frequency distributions of turns and standard deviations of the three mite species were very similar. All three species had a slight bias to turning right (clockwise) rather than to the left (counter-clockwise) and for each species certain angles occurred more often than would be expected in a 'perfect' normal distribution. A similar pattern also occurred with the frequency distribution of two-spotted spider mite heading angles, in that angles which were expected to occur more often, did not, and vice versa. The potential to use saturated salt solutions to control relative humidity on the arena was` demonstrated and indicated that relative humidity is likely to have an important influence on mite behaviour. Two-spotted spider mites appeared to move more quickly in an attempt to escape the unfavourable, extreme (10% and 95% R.H. at 25°C) moisture conditions. All three mite species displayed a characteristic edge-walking behaviour around the arenas. However, when 'edge' and 'non-edge' behaviours were compared, mean meander was the only parameter (of the parameters tested) which gave a significant difference. Behavioural responses of European red mite and T. pyri to sub-lethal (field rate) esfenvalerate were investigated and the results indicated that these mites did not seek the unsprayed halves of the arenas during the first 48 minutes. However, significant differences in most behavioural parameters to esfenvalerate residues were found with European red mite when whole arenas were compared. Image analysis is an extremely useful research tool for studying mite behaviour because of its ability to measure many parameters quickly. Careful choice of the environmental conditions, the sampling framework, and interpretation of data is essential for meaningful results.

Depuis plusieurs décennies, l’évaluation des armes à létalité réduite (ALR) et des gilets pare-balles suscite l’intérêt majeur des forces de l’ordre autour du globe. En effet, ces armes présumées à létalité réduite ou non létales sont tenues d’occasionner uniquement une douleur suffisamment importante à un individu afin d’assurer sa neutralisation. Les gilets pare-balles, quant à eux, doivent garantir un certain niveau de protection pour réduire le risque de traumatismes lié à leur déformation dynamique. Le Centre de Recherche, d’Expertise et d’appui Logistique (CREL) du Ministère de l’Intérieur français a ainsi pour objectif le développement d’un outil de prédiction du risque lésionnel thoracique lors d’impacts balistiques non pénétrants. Cela permettrait alors d’évaluer les performances des ALR et des gilets pare-balles avant leur déploiement en théâtre d’opérations. Plus précisément, cette méthode doit uniquement être fondée sur la mesure directe du processus dynamique de déformation d’un bloc de gel synthétique soumis à un impact balistique. Pour répondre à ce besoin, l’approche numérique est considérée dans ces travaux de thèse par l’emploi du mannequin numérique du thorax humain HUByx comme un outil intermédiaire permettant la détermination de fonctions de transfert entre les mesures expérimentales sur un bloc de gel et le risque lésionnel. La reproduction de conditions d’impact réelles sur HUByx nécessite la caractérisation et la modélisation de projectiles ALR ainsi que de projectiles d’armes à feu et de gilets pare-balles. Elles reposent sur une procédure d’identification par méthode inverse appliquée à l’essai de Taylor pour la modélisation des ALR et à l’essai du cône dynamique d’enfoncement sur le bloc de gel pour celle du couple projectile/gilet pare-balles. Des travaux sont dédiés à la caractérisation mécanique et à la modélisation du gel synthétique sous sollicitations dynamiques. Enfin, une approche statistique basée sur des analyses de corrélation est introduite exploitant à la fois les mesures expérimentales, les données numériques ainsi que les rapports de cas de la littérature. Une cartographie du thorax associée au risque de fractures costales est établie et est uniquement fonction d’une mesure expérimentale. / For decades, the assessment of less-lethal weapons (LLW) and bulletproof vests has generated major interest from law enforcement agencies around the world. Indeed, these presumed less-lethal or non-lethal weapons are required to cause only significant pain to an individual to ensure their neutralization. Bulletproof vests, in turn, must provide a certain level of protection to reduce the risk of trauma related to their dynamic deformation. The Center for Research, Expertise and Logistics Support (CREL) of the French Ministry of the Interior aims to develop a tool to predict thoracic injury risk during non-penetrating ballistic impacts. It would therefore be possible to evaluate the performance of LLW and bulletproof vests before their deployment in operations. More precisely, this method must only be based on the direct measurement of the dynamic process of deformation of a synthetic gel block subjected to a ballistic impact. To address that issue, the numerical approach is considered in this thesis by the use of the human thorax dummy HUByx as an intermediate tool for the determination of transfer functions between experimental metrics on a gel block and the risk of injury. The reproduction of real impact conditions on HUByx thus requires the characterization and modeling of less-lethal projectiles as well as projectiles of firearms and bulletproof vests. They rely on an inverse method identification procedure applied to the Taylor test for modeling LLW and on the analysis of blunt impacts on the gel block for projectiles/bulletproof vests. Work is then dedicated to the mechanical characterization and modeling of the synthetic gel under dynamic loadings. Finally, a statistical approach based on correlation analyses is introduced using both experimental measurements, numerical data as well as case reports from the literature. A thorax mapping associated with the risk of rib fractures is established and only depends on an experimental metric.