The purposes of this study were threefold: 1.) to duplicate previous studies by demonstrating differences in victim blame attribution, minimization of rape, and degree of excusing the perpetrator between homosexual and heterosexual victims; 2.) determine if similar patterns will be shown with male victims as with female victims in the demonstration of rape myths when the victim and perpetrator are acquainted or strangers; and 3.) test the mediation effect of homophobia on perceptions of male rape victims. 119 university students participated. Participants read a scenario in which a homosexual or heterosexual was raped by a male stranger or acquaintance. Participants then answered questions judging the seriousness of the attack and the degree of responsibility held by the victim and perpetrator. Participants also answered questions measuring their homophobic and traditional gender role beliefs. Significant differences were found between the male and female participants in victim blame attribution and rape minimization. Significant differences were also found in the amount of blame attributed to the victim and perceived seriousness of the attack between stranger and acquaintance rape for heterosexual victims, and the degree of rape minimization between heterosexual and homosexual victims of acquaintance rape. Homophobia and gender role traditionality were not found to be mediating variables in predicting victim blame attribution, degree of rape minimization, or degree of excusing the perpetrator. This study expands the current literature by examining the effects of the victim-perpetrator relationship in perceptions of male rape victims, as well as adding to the vast amount of literature suggesting that sexual orientation plays a role in how one views a male rape victim.

Bruhner, C. Det händer även män! En kvantitativ studie om myter och normer kring män som utsatts för sexuellt våld. Examensarbete på magisternivå i Kriminologi 15 högskolepoäng. Malmö högskola: Fakulteten för hälsa och samhälle, institutionen för Kriminologi, 2013.Män som utsatts för sexuellt våld är ett fenomen som får ytterst lite uppmärksamhet inom samhällsvetenskaplig forskning. Ämnet är outforskat och har en klar brist på framförallt kvantitativ data. Syftet med denna studie var att testa de myter som normen om mäns utsatthet bygger på, huruvida de bekräftas eller inte, på ett större urval. Detta för att belysa ett existerande problem samt för att kunna urskilja variabler som påverkar attityden till normen. Myterna som testades konstruerades med tidigare forskning som underlag och mynnade ut i fyra myter; definitioner av det sexuella våldet mot män – präglas av grovt våld, hot och berusning av en manlig, homosexuell förrövare. De efterföljande konsekvenserna och sanktionerna – männen bemöts med negativa sociala sanktioner och med stark misstro, reagerar inte starkt på händelsen och anmäler inte. Synen på maskulinitet – män ska vara fysiskt och psykiskt starka, heterosexuella samt kunna värja sig och därför kan de heller inte bli våldtagna. Karakteristika om den utsatte i form av ”brist på manlighet” – en utsatt man är svag fysiskt och psykiskt, homosexuell och får oftast skylla sig själv för att ha blivit utsatt. Dessa myter testades genom en kvantitativ enkätundersökning med 160 svarande studenter. Respondenterna förkastade i stort sett alla normer, i synnerlighet offerbeskyllningen och synen på maskulinitet – de två myter som visade sig ha mest inverkan på synen till ämnet i stort. Studien visade att om man har en syn på maskulinitet som ligger nära den stereotypiska normen, är man också mer benägen att hålla med om myterna. Studien visade också att de bakgrundsvariablerna som påverkade synen på myterna mest var religiositet, invandrarbakgrund samt ålder. Äldre respondenter med invandrarbakgrund och som var aktivt troende påvisade tendenser till att bekräfta myterna i större utsträckning. Dessa resultat har i studien analyserats med hjälp av Bourdieus begreppsapparat om symboliskt kapital mellan dominerande och dominerade. / Bruhner, C. It also happens to men! A Quantitative study about myths and norms regarding the sexual violence towards men. Project for a one year master degree in Criminology 15 hp. Malmö University: Faculty of health and society, Department of Criminology, 2013.Men who suffered from sexual violence are a phenomenon which gets extremely little attention in the research of social science. It is unexplored and in an almost desperate need of data, particularly quantitative data. The aim of this study was to test the myths which lay the ground for the norms about the sexual violence against men on a grander sample to see if they are confirmed or rejected. The myths that were tested are based on previous research and resulted in four different myths; definitions of the sexual violence against men – characterized by severe violence, threats and intoxication by a male homosexual perpetrator. The subsequent consequences and sanctions – the victimized men are met with negative social sanctions and strong distrust, do not react strongly to the incident and do not report to the police. Perception of masculinity – men are supposed to be physically and psychically strong, heterosexual and have the ability to defend themselves and can therefore not be raped. Characterisations about the victim in form of a lack of masculinity – a victimized man are physically and psychically weak, homosexual and are often blamed for the rape himself. These myths were tested through a quantitative survey which 160 students replied. The respondents rejected largely all of the myths, particularly the blaming of the victim and the perception of masculinities – the two myths that showed most impact on the attitude towards the subject as a whole. The study showed that if you have a view on masculinity close to the stereotypical norm, you are also more likely to confirm the myths about the sexual violence against men. The study also showed that older individuals, actively religious people and people of other origin than Swedish tend to be more prone to confirm the myths. The results are analysed throughout Bourdieu’s concepts about symbolic capital between dominant and dominated.

The aim for this thesis was to investigate how the rape narratives, where men are raped by women, are portrayed in Swedish youth literature to be able to discover whether the discourse of rape has been subjected to change over time. This is done through a comparative analysis of the male victims, the female perpetrators and how power structures determine the credibility of the victims in Glappet (1998) by Christina Herrström and Sebbe sa nej (2019) by Niclas Christoffer. The investigation is done against the context that shows how female on male rape has been constructed and reproduced as unlikely, based in culturally established norms that depict men as sexually active and women as sexually passive. A model combining Judith Butler’s theory regarding how penetration secures the sexes, with Gayle Rubin’s theory on the sexual value system, is developed and used to detect how the unintelligible rape is made intelligible. In addition to this Sandra M. Gilbert and Susan Gubars’ angel/monster dichotomy is used to explain the construction of the female perpetrator. Through the analysis it becomes visible that the narratives are shaped in certain ways to make the unintelligible rape intelligible. The understanding of sexual perpetrators and victims is deeply connected to the cultural understandings regarding gender norms and sexuality. In many ways female on male rape is constructed as an exception in the novels, and explained in terms that fit within a heteronormative framework. Despite this, the comparison of the narratives shows that the concept of rape has broadened enough to include female on male rape as a type of sexual violence.

As the written accompaniment for The Luxury of Tears, a twelve-minute documentary video exploring the emotional impact of sexual assault on male survivors and their partners, this document examines the visual texts of both the fiction and nonfiction genres. Specifically, I contend that fiction film manufactures male survivorship with regard to rape events in such manner which contributes to the thematization of social silence. Such silence perpetuates the feminization of rape as a social problem, and dissolves the development of male survivor resources. A discussion of production processes, challenges, and resolutions is included.

Sexuellt våld förekommande i konfliktområden drabbar så väl kvinnor som män. Dock råder en situation då de drabbade männen faller i skuggorna i nyhetsrapporteringen och de drabbade kvinnornas röster ljuder starkare. Syftet med uppstasen är att undersöka nyhetsrapporteringen i sex olika internationella nyhetsmedier för att utreda hur det sexuella våldet mot män i Demokratiska Republiken Kongo framställs. Undersökningen har en teoretisk ansats i ett genusperspektiv kopplat till manlighet. Det analytiska ramverket som valts att användas är en kvalitativ  textanalys. / Sexual violence occurring in areas of conflict affects as well women as men. However, there is a situation where the affected men fall in the shadows and the affected women's voices sounds stronger threw the crowd. The purpose of the paper, is to investigate news reporting in six different international newsmedia to investigate how sexual violence against men in the Democratic Republic of Congo reflects abused men. The survey has a theoretical approach from a gender perspective linked to masculinity. The analytical framework chosen is a qualitative text analysis.

Rape is a serious highly prevalent crime committed every day around the world, and affects both men and women. Rape victims must report the incidence to the police, and often the police they report to are male law enforcement officers. Yet many people in South Africa, including male law enforcement officers, do not fully accept that males can be and are victims of rape. So far there has been significantly little research into the reporting of male rape. Thus a qualitative research study on the attitudes of male law enforcement officers towards male rape victims was conducted. Social constructionism was taken as a theoretical starting point to the formal literature. The formal literature itself deals with male rape, how it is perceived, understood and misunderstood by society at large and specifically, by male law enforcement officers. The myths and truths, as well as stigmas associated with male rape are also explored. The impact of gender issues such as gender identity, gender roles and gender stereotypes are explored in-depth as they contribute to attitudes held by male law enforcement officers. Six male law enforcement officers from a Johannesburg police station participated in this study. Every one of them had had a certain amount of experience in the SAPS dealing with rape and rape victims. The researcher identified themes dealing with male rape victims from the literature, and interviewed the participants according to these themes using a semi-structured and structured format. The interviews were coded and analysed in a manner that allowed the themes, which were informed by the literature, to surface from the interview data itself. This is consistent with the qualitative tradition of psychological research. It was found that, male law enforcement officers’ attitudes towards male rape victims influence the way they think about and perceive these victims. It is very likely that this influence has a negative impact on the psychological well being of the male rape victim. It was also found that many male rape victims do not report their victimisation to the police as they fear they will not be taken seriously, they will be laughed at or even ridiculed. The law enforcement officers confirm that the stigma and shame of male rape victims compound their experience, making it traumatic and nearly impossible for them to process. The researcher believes that a change in these attitudes can lead to a change in the way male rape victims are perceived and treated by law enforcement officers, as well as by society as a whole. Further study into the role of cultural beliefs concerning masculinity and gender roles in the South African context can contribute to a better understanding of the phenomenon of male rape, and can be integrated into the current intervention models used to treat these victims. / Dissertation (MA (Clinical Psychology))--University of Pretoria, 2008. / Psychology / unrestricted

Män som utsatts för sexuellt våld är ett ämne som erhåller lite uppmärksamhet både inom forskning och i vardagligt tal. Att analysera skriven medias framställning av sexuellt våldsutsatta män har så vitt jag vet inte utförts i en svensk vetenskaplig kontext innan, vilket gör denna studie unik i sitt slag. Studiens primära syfte var att undersöka hur män som utsatts för sexuellt våld framställs i skriven media. Jag ville se huruvida media bekräftar eller förkastar de sociala myterna kring ämnet. Vidare så var målet med studien att ytterligare belysa ämnet för att lyfta upp det för diskussionen och fördjupa förståelsen och kunskapen för ämnet. Fyrtio journalistiska artiklar samlades in genom en systematisk litteratursökning och har utgjort det empiriska materialet i studien som sedan bearbetades genom en form av diskursanalys. De myter som testades var; Män som utsatts för sexuellt våld är extremt ovanligt – framställs som sensationellt och med skepticism, Definitioner om det sexuella våldet mot män – präglas av grovt fysiskt våld, hot, ofta med vapen och droger, Det sexuella våldets könstypiska uppdelning – händelsen framställs som en kontrast mellan femininiteter och maskuliniteter, De efterföljande konsekvenserna – dessa förminskas eller negligeras och offer bemöts negativt av omgivningen. Resultatet visade att myterna till väldigt stor del bekräftades i den mediala framställningen, i synnerlighet ämnets ovanlighet, det fysiska våldet, offerbeskyllningen och det skeptiska bemötandet/rapporteringen. Varför ämnet framställs på ett visst sätt analyseras och presenteras med tidigare forskning som teoretisk bakgrund. / Men who suffered from sexual violence are an issue that receives little attention, both within research and colloquially. Analysing the depiction of sexually abused men in written media has not, as far as I know, been done in a Swedish scientific context before, which makes this study unique in its kind. The primarily aim of this study has been to examine how sexually abused men are depicted in written media. I wanted to see whether the media confirms or rejects the social myths that surround the subject. Furthermore has the ambition with the study been to enlighten the issue to make it a subject for discussion so the knowledge and the understanding can be deepened. The empirical material of forty journalistic articles was gathered in through a systematic literature search and processed via a type of discourse analysis. The tested myths were; Men who suffered from sexual violence are extremely unusual – portrayed as sensational and with scepticism, Definitions of the sexual violence against men – characterized by severe violence, threats, often with weapons and drugs, The stereotypical sex segregation of sexual violence – The event is portrayed as a contrast between masculinity and femininity, The subsequent consequences – are diminished or neglected, the victim is met with negativity by its surrounding. The result showed that de myths were widely confirmed in the depiction of media, especially the phenomenon’s unusualness, the physical violence, the victim blaming and the sceptical approach/reporting. Why the subject is portrayed in a special way has been analysed and presented with the precious research as a theoretical background

Department of Criminal Justice / See the attached abstract below

Den här studien har till syfte att utifrån maskulinitets - och identitetsteoretiska perspektiv undersöka sju yrkesverksamma behandlares och rådgivares syn på mäns utsatthet för sexuella övergrepp.  Fokus är på föreställningar om män som blir utsatta för grövre sexuella övergrepp av andra män, och som söker psykosocialt stöd för detta i vuxen ålder. De intervjuade personerna är utvalda eftersom de arbetar eller har arbetat psykosocialt på antingen offentliga sjukhusmottagningar eller icke-statliga organisationer, och i sina yrkesroller mött män utsatta för grövre sexuella övergrepp av andra män. Studien kan tänkas vara ett betydelsefullt tillskott till forskning inom socialt arbete då få svenska studier undersökt yrkesverksamma behandlares och rådgivares syn på män, och sexuella övergrepp i relation till maskulinitets- och identitetsnormer. Studiens resultat tyder på att metoder och behandlingar erbjudna män utsatta för sexuellt våld och sexuella övergrepp inte skiljer sig avsevärt mot vad som erbjuds kvinnor i motsvarande situation. Synen på män utsatta för övergrepp uppfattas bli påverkad av synen på hegemonisk maskulinitet, avvikande och genuskontraktets principer, vilket medför att mäns sexuella identitet och könsidentitet kommer i fokus på ett annat sätt än för kvinnor i motsvarande situation. Överlag betonas att psykologiska reaktioner inte verkar skilja sig beroende på kön. Män utsatta för sexuella övergrepp som söker samtalsstöd verkar möta andra frågeställningar än kvinnor och dessa verkar ha att göra med maskulinitetsnormer, våldtäktsmyter, avvikande och homofobi. Studiens resultat indikerar att intervjupersonerna har svårt att uppfatta män som offer för sexuella övergrepp med anledning av normer om genus, hegemonisk maskulinitet, sexuell självuppfattning och risken för att utsättas för negativa konsekvenser på grund av avvikande. Studien visar också på att intervjupersonerna uppfattar en ovilja och oförmåga bland män att definiera vissa sexuella erfarenheter som sexuella övergrepp. Det förklaras med att intervjupersonerna är påverkade av hegemonisk maskulinitet och är en del av upprätthållandet av genuskontraktet, samt påverkas av sin sexuella självuppfattning. Emellertid dras slutsatsen att intervjupersonerna har en användbar förförståelse om maskulinitetsnormers påverkan som kan vara hjälpsamma i processen att definiera sexuella erfarenheter som eventuella sexuella övergrepp. / The aim of this study is to form a masculinity and identity theoretical perspective from investigating counselors' views of male clients exposed to severe sexual assault. The focus is mainly on men that have been exposed to severe sexual assault by other men during adulthood. To investigate this, seven counselors have been interviewed about their views and experiences of males undergoing psychosocial treatments due to them being sexually assaulted by other men. The interviewed counselors work or have worked at either public hospitals or non-governmental organizations. To relate their views of sexual assault and masculinity norms might be of great value to social work since few Swedish studies highlight counselors’ views on masculinity, identity norms and men exposed to sexual assaults. The result of the study shows that the methods used on and treatments offered to men seeking counseling due to sexual assault do not differ substantially from those extended to women. In general, the counselors convey that men's psychological responses seem to be similar no matter what their gender identity. Males exposed to sexual assault who seek counseling appear to face different issues from women due to masculinity norms, rape myths, perceived deviation and homophobia. The result derived from the counselor interviews, indicate that they and their male clients find it difficult to consider men as victims of sexual assaults due to gender norms, hegemonic masculinity, sexual self-perception, and the risk of negative consequences of deviance. The outcome of the study also shows that the counselors comprehend that men exposed to sexual assault show a reluctance and inability to designate these sexual experiences as such. This might be explained by the fact that these males (and indeed their counselors) are affected by hegemonic masculinity, sexual self-perception, and are a part of the maintenance of the gender contract. The outcome also shows that the counselors have a useful preunderstanding of how masculinity norms might affect male clients and that the counselors’ preunderstanding sometimes is useful in the process of defining the clients’ sexual experiences as sexual assaults.