Neuroblastoma is a malignant childhood cancer, originating from sympathetic neuroblasts of the peripheral nervous system. Neuroblastoma is a heterogenous group of tumours, while some are highly malignant others can spontaneosly mature into a more benign form or regress. Less than half of the patients survive and this statistics has improved only modestly over the past 20 years. SH-SY5Y is a human neuroblastoma cell line established from a highly malignant tumour. The cells have retained a capacity to differentiate in vitro in response to low concentrations of the phorbolester 12-O-tetradecanoylphorbol-13-acetate (TPA) in the presence of serum or defined growth factors. Differentiated cells are characterised by neurite formation and upregulation of neuronal marker genes. SH-SY5Y are unresponsive to nerve growth factor (NGF), but when transfected to express the NGF-receptor TrkA, they differentiate in response to NGF. Protein kinase C (PKC) is pivotal for the differentiation response to take place. We have investigated the role of signaling through the Ras-MAPK pathway in differentiating SH-SY5Y, with respect to neurite formation, expression of neuronal marker genes and growth control. Our results show that differentiation-promoting treatment induced a sustained activation and nuclear accumulation of the MAPK ERK in SH-SY5Y. The nuclear accumulation of ERK was PKC-dependent. However, nuclear accumulation of ERK was not sufficient for a differentiation response to take place in these cells, but ERK activity was needed for the characteristic upregulation of NPY and GAP-43 induced by TPA. ERK activity did not induce neurite formation, neither was it necessary for TPA-induced neurite formation. Instead, stimulation of a pathway distinct from MEK/ERK, but downstream of Ras, was needed for morphological differentiation. We could also show that differentiated cells still entered S-phase and that there was no correlation between expression of the CKI p21cip1 (an ERK target), BrdU-incorporation or neurite formation.

The development of diabetes mellitus depends on the balance between beta-cell proliferation and death. As mitogen-activated protein kinases (MAPK) may control this balance, the aim of this study was to investigate the events leading to MAPK activation in beta-cells and the consequences of these events. Overexpression of the SH2-domain containing adaptor protein Shb resulted in the assembly and activation of multiunit complex consisting of at least Shb, IRS-1, IRS-2, FAK and PI3K. Consequently, the phosphorylation of Akt was enhanced under basal conditions in Shb overexpression cells. This was paralleled by an attenuated activation of the MAP kinases ERK1/2. Thus, Shb-induced alterations in the IRS-1/PI3K/Akt/ERK pathway might explain the increased proliferation and apoptosis of beta-cells overexpressing Shb. The importance of the MAP kinase p38 in nitric oxide- and cytokine-induced beta-cell death was also investigated. Knock-down of p38 expression resulted in a lowered cell death rate in response to a nitric oxide donor. In transient transfections MKK3 over-expression resulted in increased p38 phosphorylation in RIN-5AH cells. In addition, a short-term MKK3 expression resulted in increased cytokine-induced cell death. A nitric oxide synthase inhibitor abolished the MKK3-potentiating effect on cytokine-induced cell death and inhibitors of phosphatases enhanced MKK3-stimulated p38 phosphorylation. Finally, as the dominant negative mutant of MKK3 did not affect cytokine-induced p38 phosphorylation, and as wild type MKK3 did not influence p38 autophosphorylation, it may be that p38 is activated by MKK3/6-independent pathways in response to cytokines and nitric oxide. In further support for an MKK3/6-indepedent mechanism, the adaptor protein TAB1 significantly increased the cytokine- and nitric oxide-stimulated phosphorylation of p38. The TAB1-mediated activation of p38 was paralleled by a compensatory inhibition of ERK and JNK. In summary, p38 MAPK, activated mainly by TAB1, promotes, at least in part, beta-cell death in response to cytokines or nitric oxide.

Delta-like 1 Homologue (DLK1), a transmembrane protein of 383 amino acids, belongs to a family of epidermal growth factor (EGF)-like repeat-containing proteins that include Notch/Delta/Serrate, which are involved in cell fate determination. DLK1 is also known as preadipocyte factor-1, pG2, and FA-1, which are identical or polymorphic products of a single gene. Structural analysis revealed that DLK1 consists of an extracellular domain with six EGF-like repeats, a transmembrane domain, and an intracellular domain. The extracellular EGF-like region of DLK1 (DLK1-EC) can be released to the medium by the action of tumor necrosis factor alpha converting enzyme (TACE). DLK1 participates in various differentiation processes including adipogenesis, hematopoiesis, and adrenal gland differentiation. Besides, DLK1 overexpression was observed in patients with biliary atresia and in glioblastoma. Recently, the extracellular domain of thrombomodulin, which also contains six EGF¡Vlike structures, has been delineated to stimulate angiogenesis in vitro and in vivo. This prompted us to investigate whether DLK1-EC played a role in angiogenesis. To test such hypothesis, recombinant DLK1-EC was expressed and purified in E. coli. Adding DLK1-EC recombinant protein inhibited the adipogenesis of adipocytes-derived stem cells in a dose-dependent manner. Despite marginal effect on matrix-metalloproteinase secretion, exogenous DLK1-EC significantly stimulated the proliferation, motility and tube-forming capability of cultured endothelial cells. Above all, implantation of DLK1-EC-containing hydron pellets induced cornea neovascularization in a dose-dependent manner. Western blot analysis revealed that exogenous DLK1-EC induced angiogenesis through Notch1 activating downstream gene Hes1 and subsequently signaling such as Akt/eNOS, p38 MAPK, and ERK pathway to perform its function. Indeed, blockade of Notch1 signaling using £^-secretase inhibitor leads to decreased angiogenesis and inhibits DLK1 EC-induced endothelial cell tubular formation in vitro and in vivo. These findings indicate that DLK1-EC induced Notch1 activation mediated by £^-secretase and tansactivation Akt/eNOS pathway and that Notch1 is critical for DLK1 EC-induced angiogenesis. These results may bring further insights into the physiological and pathological functions of DLK1

The receptor tyrosine kinase (RTK) c-Kit is expressed in hematopoietic stem and progenitor cells, mast cells and in several non-hematopoietic tissues. In the hematopoietic system c-Kit and its ligand Steel Factor (SF, aka Stem Cell Factor) are critical for proliferation, survival and differentiation. Mutations in either receptor or ligand lead to lethal anaemia, hematopoietic stem cell defects, mast cell deficiency and a series of non-hematological defects. The aims of the studies included in this thesis are to describe the signalling pathways downstream c-Kit in hematopoietic stem/progenitor cells and to further analyse the role of c-Kit signalling in fundamental biological functions. To study c-Kit signalling in the hematopoietic system we have employed hematopoietic stem cell-like cell lines which share many properties with primary hematopoietic stem cells in vitro and in vivo, including surface markers, multipotentiality, capacity for self-renewal and long term repopulation. In paper I we demonstrate that upon SF activation the RTK c-Kit is autophosphorylated and downstream signalling mediators are transiently activated. Surprisingly we find that the c-Kit mediated activation of the MAPK pathway is dependent on the activation of phosphoinositide 3-kinase (PI3K) in hematopoietic progenitor cells and that differentiation of these progenitors to mast cells results in a signalling switch where Raf activation changes from PI3K dependent to PI3K independent. We here establish that PI3K activity is required for viability and proliferation of hematopoietic progenitor cells. In paper II we studied the conventional protein kinase C (cPKC) involvement in c-Kit signalling. We observe that the cPKCs can phosphorylate c-Kit on serine 746 and that this phosphorylation negatively regulates the activation of the receptor. We demonstrate that inhibition of this negative phosphorylation results in dramatically increased protein kinase B (PKB) activation and as a consequence inhibition of cPKCs rescues cells from starvation induced apoptosis. Moreover we exhibit that the cPKCs are necessary for full activation of extracellular signal-regulated kinase (Erk) and that impaired PKC activity leads to hampered proliferation. In paper III we demonstrate that in addition to the cPKCs also the novel PKC is required for Erk activation and proliferation. Furthermore we present results indicating that PKC negatively regulates differentiation of bone marrow. In conclusion, with the studies in this thesis we display details in the signalling pathways induced upon RTK c-Kit activation and we demonstrate that c-Kit has significant effects on hematopoietic cell-physiology.

Mammalian Scribble is a target for proteins encoded by human papilloma virus, retro- and flaviviruses. Tick-borne encephalitis virus (TBEV) is a flavivirus that have evolved distinct strategies to escape antiviral responses. Information of how flaviviruses intrude on cell integrity comes from understanding of the roles that host-factors play when they interfere with viruses. The first part of this thesis describes a novel interaction between the TBEVNS5 protein and Scribble. The importance of the interaction was demonstrated by RNAi-mediated depletion of Scribble, which prevented suppression of JAK-STAT signaling by NS5. Together, these results define Scribble as a novel target for NS5. TBEV is known to cause central nervous system disease TBE in humans that can lead to cognitive dysfunction. A unifying theme in CNS related diseases are defects in neuronal extensions. We therefore addressed the effects of TBEV expression in PC12 cell differentiation, which is characterized by extensive neurite growth. Our data show that TBEVNS5 suppresses neurite outgrowth through the Rho GTPase Rac1. These findings provide evidence that Rac1 is an indirect target of NS5 in neurite inhibition. Scribble was recently implicated in spine morphogenesis. Thus, we tested the role of Scribble in neurite elongation. Depletion of Scribble in PC12 cells, reduced neurite density but increased length of those remaining. Moreover, Scribble bound components in the Ras/ERK cascade in a growth factor dependent manner. Together, these results demonstrate that Scribble controls neurite elongation by scaffolding MAPK components. Moreover, as loss of dendritic spines, actin-rich protrusions on neurons, is a feature in cognitive dysfunction we speculate that cognitive dysfunction in TBE might involve disturbed Scribble expression by NS5. We also investigated the binding between NS1 of Influenza A virus and Scribble. The PDZ domains of Scribble are usually selective for specific C-terminal motifs in proteins. Because NS1 has a canonical PDZ motif we tested if binding to Scribble depends on this motif. We found that Scribble binds NS1; the association is dependent on the NS1 C-terminus that is recognized by PDZ3-4 of Scribble. Together, these results suggest that Scribble is a target for the H5N1 NS1 protein / At the time of the doctoral defense, the following papers were unpublished and had a status as follows: Paper 2: In press. Paper 3: Manuscript. Paper 4: Manuscript.

Chez les eucaryotes, la transcription est réalisée en plusieurs étapes. Différents facteurs contrôlent ces étapes en apportant des modifications post-traductionnelles à l'ARN polymérase II, en modulant son activité catalytique ou en modifiant l'état et l'accessibilité de la chromatine. Plusieurs exemples chez la levure et les mammifères montrent que les kinases des voies de signalisation MAP-kinase peuvent contrôler directement les étapes de la transcription en se fixant sur la chromatine. Les étapes de pré-initiation et d'initiation de la transcription ont longtemps été considérées comme les plus importantes pour le contrôle de l'expression des gènes. Mais le contrôle de la pause de l'ARN polymérase II au début de l'élongation est lui aussi primordial. Au cours de ma thèse, je me suis intéressé aux relations fonctionnelles entre le facteur chromatinien Corto, la MAP kinase ERK et le facteur d'élongation de la transcription Elongin. J'ai montré que ERK, une de ses protéines d'échafaudage MP1 et Corto forment un complexe chromatinien qui régule le développement des tissus de l'aile. Corto interagissant avec des protéines des groupes Polycomb et Trithorax, ce complexe pourrait être impliqué dans un mécanisme de reprogrammation de l'expression de gènes en réponse à l'activation de ERK. Mes travaux ont aussi mis en évidence un rôle du complexe Elongin, en interaction avec Corto, au cours du développement des tissus de l'aile. Corto et Elongin participeraient à la régulation transcriptionnelle de rhomboïd, un gène clé du développement des tissus de l'aile. Enfin, j'ai entrepris l'étude du rôle de l'interaction entre Corto et certains ARN, dont l'ARN codant la protéine MP1.

<p><i>S. sclerotiorum</i> has been studied for over 100 years. Despite this, a definite resistance mechanism to this plant pathogen remains to be identified. Researchers continue to examine the <i>S. sclerotiorum</i> life cycle to identify stages where effective disease management strategies can be applied. The development of molecular tools has allowed for a better understanding of the pathogen and created new opportunities for research on plant-pathogen interactions.</p> <p>Most of the past research on pathogenicity factors produced by this pathogen, such as hydrolytic enzymes, studied them in isolation. This thesis examines how <i>S. sclerotiorum</i> pathogenicity factors, including cutinases, polygalacturonases and necrosis-inducing peptides, work in concert during the infection. The first study explored processes for cuticle penetration leading to the identification of the gene encoding S. sclerotiorum cutinase A and the characterization of the factors that govern its expression during the infection. The second study investigated how the pathogen penetrates the cell wall and proliferates within the host. In this regard, the mechanism with which expression of <i>S. sclerotiorum</i> polygalacturonase genes is regulated was elucidated. The interplay with host polygalacturonase inhibitor proteins was also demonstrated and related to the mechanisms of host resistance. The third study examined factors involved in tissue necrosis and two necrosis-inducing proteins were characterized. This study also unraveled part of the signaling mechanisms that allow for the pathogen to regulate pathogenicity gene expression during the infection. The signaling mechanisms were found to involve calcium, cAMP and at least one <i>S. sclerotiorum</i> mitogen activated protein kinase (SMK3) working in concert to coordinate the infection process. SMK3 was found to play a major role in a variety of vital functions, such as mycelial branching, infection cushion formation and sclerotia production. Genetic transformation of <i>S. sclerotiorum</i> was required to enable certain aspects of this study. My approach to this led to the development of a highly efficient method to isolate homokaryotic lines of filamentous fungi. In conclusion, this thesis has advanced the understanding of <i>S. sclerotiorum</i>-host interactions and identified a number of factors involved in pathogenesis.</p>

Una de las vías que se postula que tienen una mayor importancia en las enfermedades neurodegenerativas es la de los inositoles fosfato. Para el estudio de esta vía se ha utilizado un inhibidor farmacológico de la fosfoinositol 3 cinasa (PI3K), el LY294002, en un modelo in vitro de células granulares de cerebelo de rata (CGC). Al tratar las CGC con una dosis de 30μM de LY294002 se produce una muerte celular por apoptosis que es independiente de calpaínas y dependiente de caspasas, además no se observa la fragmentación de p35 ni de α espectrina que se da por activación de las calpaínas. Los ensayos de actividad caspasa nos muestran un incremento significativo de la actividad de las caspasas 6 y 9 pero no de la 3 como sucede en otros modelos de apoptosis como la deprivación de S/K+. Nuestros estudios muestran que aunque existen algunas similitudes entre los modelos de inhibición de la PI3K y la deprivación de S/K+ también existen importantes diferencias. En ambos se produce una desfosforilación de AKT en Ser476 y consecuentemente una desfosforilación de GSK3β en Ser9, lo que indica la activación de GSK3β. Respecto a la proteína Rb en ambos modelos se observa un incremento de su fosforilación, si bien su papel es distinto ya que en la deprivación de S/K+ conduce a la liberación del E2F y a la transcripción de proteínas relacionadas con el ciclo celular. Además, se observó un incremento de la síntesis de DNA. Por el contrario el tratamiento con LY294002, pese a provocar un incremento en la fosforilación del Rb, no lleva a la expresión de ciclinas, CDKs ni un aumento de la síntesis de DNA.. Sin embargo el uso de inhibidores de CDK como flavopiridol y roscovitina muestran una protección significativa frente a la apoptosis inducida por LY294002, nuestros estudios muestran por vez primera que, no solo flavopiridol sino también otros inhibidores de CDK como la roscovitina tienen capacidad para inhibir la actividad GSK3β. Rb puede ser fosforilado por p38, un miembro de la vía de las MAPK las cuales son inhibidas por AKT. Nuestros resultados indican que LY294002 produce un incremento de la actividad de p38, pero no de JNK. Además, los cultivos Knockout de JNK3 no muestran una protección frente al tratamiento con LY294002, lo que refuerza la idea de que JNK no juega un papel central en este modelo. El incremento de actividad de p38 fue revertido con SB203580, un inhibidor de p38, así como por SP600125, inhibidor de JNK. Ambos fármacos mostraron una protección significativa frente a la apoptosis inducida por LY294002 y una reducción de la fosforilación del factor de transcripción c‐Jun, implicado en la apoptosis. La activación de c‐Jun conduce a la expresión de genes proapoptóticos como dp5 relacionados con la vía intrínseca, la inhibición de p38 previno del aumento de expresión de dp5. Por el contrario otras proteínas implicadas en la vía como Bim no están reguladas por c‐Jun ya que la inhibición de esta vía no reduce su activación. En nuestro estudio podemos concluir que, LY294002 produce una apoptosis dependiente de caspasas 6 y 9, sin implicación ni de calpaínas ni de proteínas del ciclo celular. La inhibición de AKT lleva a la activación de GSK3β y de p38. Además, p38 es capaz de fosforilar c‐Jun que regula la expresión de genes relacionados con la apoptosis por la vía intrínseca. / The inositol pathway has been reported that plays a key role in neurodegenerative diseases We study the mechansims involved in the apoptosis induced by inhibiting the phosphoinositol 3 kinase (PI3K) using a pharmacological inhibitor named LY294002 in an in vitro model of rat cerebellar granule cells (CGC). LY294002 induced apoptotic cell death through calpain independent and caspase dependent. Furthermore, we could not observed neither fragmentation of of p35 or α espectrin which is caused by calpains. The caspase activity assays showed a significant increase in caspase 6 and 9 but not in caspasa 3, in contrast with other apoptotic models such as de S/K+ deprivation. Our studies show that although exist several common points between inhibition of PI3K and S/K+ deprivation, also exist important differences between them. In both cases it has been observed AKT dephosphorylation at Ser476 and consequently GSK3β dephosphorylation at Ser9, which indicates GSK3β activation. On the other side, it was observed an increase of Rb phosphorylation in both models. However, it seems that the role played by this protein is different since in the de S/K+ deprivation leads to E2F released which participates in the transcription of proteins related to cell cycle. Moreover, the BrdU assay showed an increase in DNA synthesis. On the contrary, the LY294002 treatment, in spite of the fact that induced an increase of Rb phosphorylation, it did not induce any change of the levels neither cell cycle proteins or However, CDK inhibitors such as flavopiridol and roscovitine protected from the apoptosis induced by LY294002, our studies showed for the first time, that not only flavopiridol, but also other CDK inhibitors such as roscovitine could inhibit the GSK3β activity. Furthermore Rb can be phosphorylated by p38, which is a protein of MAPK pathway that is down‐regulated by AKT. Our results showed that LY294002 produced an increase of p38 activity, but not of JNK. Moreover, JNK3 Knockout cultures were not significantly protected from LY294002 treatment, this reinforces the idea that JNK is not the main target involved in this model. The increase of p38 activity was prevented with SB203580, a specific p38 inhibitor, and either with SP600125, a JNK inhibitor. Both drugs shown a significant protection from the apoptosis induced by LY294002 and prevented from c‐Jun phosphorylation, a transcription factor implied in apoptosis. The activation of c‐Jun triggered the expression of proapoptotic genes such as dp5 which is related to the intrinsic pathway, p38 inhibition prevented from the increase in dp5 expression. On the contrary, other proapoptotic proteins related to this pathway such as Bim was not regulated by c‐Jun since the inhibition of p38 pathway did not reduce its expression. In our study we can conclude that LY294002 induced apoptosis mediated by caspasas 6 and 9. Neither calpains nor cell cycle proteins were involved in this apoptotic model. The inhibition of AKT leaded to GSK3β and p38 activation. Moreover, p38 was able to phosphorylate c‐Jun that triggers the expression of proapoptotic genes implied in the apoptotic intrinsic pathway.

<p><i>S. sclerotiorum</i> has been studied for over 100 years. Despite this, a definite resistance mechanism to this plant pathogen remains to be identified. Researchers continue to examine the <i>S. sclerotiorum</i> life cycle to identify stages where effective disease management strategies can be applied. The development of molecular tools has allowed for a better understanding of the pathogen and created new opportunities for research on plant-pathogen interactions.</p> <p>Most of the past research on pathogenicity factors produced by this pathogen, such as hydrolytic enzymes, studied them in isolation. This thesis examines how <i>S. sclerotiorum</i> pathogenicity factors, including cutinases, polygalacturonases and necrosis-inducing peptides, work in concert during the infection. The first study explored processes for cuticle penetration leading to the identification of the gene encoding S. sclerotiorum cutinase A and the characterization of the factors that govern its expression during the infection. The second study investigated how the pathogen penetrates the cell wall and proliferates within the host. In this regard, the mechanism with which expression of <i>S. sclerotiorum</i> polygalacturonase genes is regulated was elucidated. The interplay with host polygalacturonase inhibitor proteins was also demonstrated and related to the mechanisms of host resistance. The third study examined factors involved in tissue necrosis and two necrosis-inducing proteins were characterized. This study also unraveled part of the signaling mechanisms that allow for the pathogen to regulate pathogenicity gene expression during the infection. The signaling mechanisms were found to involve calcium, cAMP and at least one <i>S. sclerotiorum</i> mitogen activated protein kinase (SMK3) working in concert to coordinate the infection process. SMK3 was found to play a major role in a variety of vital functions, such as mycelial branching, infection cushion formation and sclerotia production. Genetic transformation of <i>S. sclerotiorum</i> was required to enable certain aspects of this study. My approach to this led to the development of a highly efficient method to isolate homokaryotic lines of filamentous fungi. In conclusion, this thesis has advanced the understanding of <i>S. sclerotiorum</i>-host interactions and identified a number of factors involved in pathogenesis.</p>

<p>Copper is an essential trace element required by all aerobic organisms as a co-factor for enzymes involved in normal growth, development and physiology. Ctr1 proteins are members of a highly conserved family of copper importers responsible for copper uptake across the plasma membrane. Mice lacking Ctr1 die during embryogenesis from widespread developmental defects, demonstrating the need for adequate copper acquisition in the development of metazoan organisms via as yet uncharacterized mechanisms. The early lethality of the Ctr1 knockout mouse has made it difficult to study the functions of copper and Ctr1 proteins in metazoan development and physiology. Drosophila melanogaster, a genetically tractable system expresses three Ctr1 genes, Ctr1A, Ctr1B and Ctr1C, and may help to further understand the roles of copper and Ctr1 proteins in metazoan development and physiology. Described here is the characterization of Drosophila Ctr1A. </p><p>Localization studies using an affinity purified anti-Ctr1A peptide antibody show Ctr1A is predominantly expressed at the plasma membrane in whole embryos and in larval tissues. Ctr1A is an essential gene in Drosophila as loss-of-function mutants, generated by imprecise p-element excision arrest at early larval stages of development. Inductively coupled plasma mass spectroscopy (ICP-MS) demonstrated that whole body copper levels are reduced in Ctr1A mutants and consequently, a number of copper-dependent enzyme deficiencies were detected by in vitro enzyme and cell biological assays. Ctr1A maternal and zygotic mutants have a more severe developmental phenotype and also showed reductions in heart rate, which could be partially rescued by dietary copper supplementation. Heart-specific Ctr1A knockdown flies were subsequently examined for heart rate defects using optical coherence tomography (OCT) and while they did have reduced heart rate measurements, heart contractility was compromised. While investigating tissue-specific requirements for Ctr1A in the development of Drosophila, a genetic interaction between Ctr1A and Ras was observed. Genetic experiments in Drosophila and cell culture experiments in both Drosophila and mammalian cell lines demonstrate a conserved role for Ctr1 proteins and copper as positive modulators of Ras/MAPK pathway signaling. Immunoblot analysis shows that signal transduction is intact until the point at which MEK1/2 phosphorylates ERK1/2. MEK2 protein levels are reduced in copper deficient cells, while MEK1 is able to bind copper-chelated beads, suggesting that these two proteins may be copper-binding proteins. In summary, this work demonstrates that Ctr1A is an essential gene in Drosophila and through characterization studies of Ctr1A, has uncovered conserved roles for Ctr1 proteins and copper in physiological processes and in an important signaling pathway that controls a number of fundamental biological processes.</p> / Dissertation