This thesis examines the massacres of the Plains Indian Wars in the United States (1851-1890) and how they relate to contemporary theories of genocide. By using the Plains Indian Wars as a case study, a critique can be made of theories which inform predictive models and genocide policy. This thesis analyzes newspaper articles, histories, congressional investigations, presidential speeches, and administrative policies surrounding the four primary massacres perpetrated by the United States during this time. An ideology of racial superiority and fears of insecurity, impurity, and insurgency drove the actions of the white settler-colonialists and their military counterparts. Still, despite the theoretical emphasis on massacre in genocide theory, massacres on the Plains were relatively rare compared to the use of other genocidal tactics. This demonstrates that contemporary genocide theorists must be careful not to unintentionally limit thinking on genocide to strict military or militia led violence.

The dissertation studies the fictional journey of Zhang Xianliang from the viewpoint of political unconscious. Zhang has been under different kinds of labour reform and re-education in mainland China for twenty-two years. The experience is too painful to recall, yet too feared to be forgotten. The repressed trauma of Zhang is therefore displaced and disguised in the fictional language of reform, remembrance, love, sex and death. Each language fulfils one layer of Zhang's hidden wishes. Yet the desiring chain moves on with new forms of substitutions until death. The study investigates his unconscious psyche from the Historical subtexts of conflicting impulses between body and mind, self and Other, individual and socialist Ideological State Apparatuses, and the residual, dominant and emerging modes of production.

El 14 de agosto de 1985, durante el largo conflicto armado interno entre la guerrilla maoísta de Sendero Luminoso - SL y el Estado peruano, una patrulla del Ejército entró en el pueblo andino de Accomarca, ubicado en la región de Ayacucho, y asesinó a 69 personas indígenas, incluyendo niños y ancianos, supuestos simpatizantes del grupo insurgente. La mayoría de los sobrevivientes y familiares de las víctimas se desplazaron a Lima y se integraron en una organización de víctimas y en la Asociación Hijos del Distrito de Accomarca - AHIDA. Desde el año 2011, con motivo de la extradición desde los Estados Unidos del mayor Telmo Hurtado, principal responsable de la masacre, la AHIDA ha recreado la dolorosa experiencia de la matanza a través de una performance anual del carnaval ayacuchano, incorporando coreografías y canciones testimoniales para exigir la justicia para las víctimas de la masacre. Esta performance carnavalesca integra a los niños y jóvenes que no vivieron la masacre, pero imaginan, interpretan y crean su propia memoria mediante la comunicación con los sobrevivientes y la participación en la producción cultural del evento.En este artículo expongo cómo los sobrevivientes y familiares de las víctimas recuerdan la masacre y transmiten sus memorias a sus hijos a través de una actuación carnavalesca. Describo la producción deuna memoria intergeneracional a través de la transmisión intergeneracional, que se construye en el espacio doméstico (familia), el espacio comunal/institucional (AHIDA), y el espacio público (carnaval). Sin duda, la ocasión del carnaval es un espacio de gran alcance para la producción de otras formas de memoria, y para la demanda de la justicia a través de una coreografía participativa y performance musical. / On August 14, 1985, during the long internal armed conflict between the Maoist guerrilla group Sendero Luminoso and the Peruvian state, an army patrol entered the Andean town Accomarca, located in the Ayacucho region, and killed 69 indigenous people, including children and elderly, alleged supporters of the insurgent group. The majority of survivors and relatives of victims were displaced to Lima and integrated into the victims’ organization and the Asociación Hijos del Distrito de Accomarca - AHIDA. Since 2011, on the occasion of the extradition from the United States of Lieutenant Telmo Hurtado, main person responsible of the massacre, the AHIDA has recreated the painful experience of the massacre through an annual Ayacuchan Carnival performance incor- porating choreography and testimonial songs to demand justice for the victims of the massacre. In addition, this carnivalesque performance involves children and young people who did not lived the massacre, but imagine, interpret and create their own memory by communicating with the survivors and participating in the cultural production of the event. In this article, I expose how survivors and relatives of victims remember the massacre and transmit their memories to their children through a carnivalesque performance. I describe the production of an intergenerational memory through the intergenerational transmission, which is constructed in the domestic space (family), the communal/institutional space (AHIDA), and the public space (Carnival). Surely, the occasion of the Carnival is a powerful spacefor the production of other forms of memory, and for the demand for justice through participatory choreographic and musical performance.

This thesis uses the referent “My Lai Massacre” to refer to the mythic memory of what happened in Son My on 16 March, 1968. It argues that it is a fitting name for the way it captures the ethnocentrism of the memory in the name by perpetuating an American misnomer rooted in ignorance. It also singularizes the scope of horrors of the day, and fails to differentiate ‘the massacre’ from the domestic turmoil with which it was conflated. The My Lai Massacre narrative as it currently exists in American history and memory is ‘exceptionalist’ in that it incorporates and excludes story elements in such a way that casts it as a highly exceptional occurrence. The main argument of this thesis is that American history and memory of the ‘My Lai Massacre’ have, to a large degree, been defined and shaped by conservative influences. In the time since the news of the atrocities became public this has manifested itself in a number of way and is not confined to conservative histories of the war. Despite the hold liberal orthodox scholarship has on the history of the war, there remains within it, this thesis argues, a conservative trend regarding the massacres in Son My. Reactions, explanations, and rationalizations that appeared in early conservative responses to news of the massacres have survived into a wider ideological spectrum of Vietnam scholarship and memory than that from which it came. Although it seems at first consideration an unlikely event from which a usable past might be constructed, the My Lai Massacre does get used in a didactic manner. This thesis examines some of the most prevalent ways the memory of My Lai functions as a usable past. The My Lai Massacre has been incorporated into a number of ‘lessons of the past’ that tend to be derived from conservative narratives of the war.

In the Anglophone world, the Nanjing Massacre is also known as “the Rape of Nanjing,” which represents gender-based violence directly and inspires fictional writers to depict the tragedy of women. Yan Geling’s novel The Flowers of Warand Zhang Yimou’s film adapted from that novel are examples. In this thesis, through a comparison of Iris Chang’s The Rape of Nankingand two versions of The Flowers of War, I examine how Yan and Zhang apply the historical materials to portray the interaction between women and calamity. In The Rape of Nanking, Iris Chang displays “rape” from a transnational perspective. First, patriarchy rapes women. The East Asian male-dominated society exposed women to extreme danger. Society taught women to be gentle and meek, but men surrendered and fled when the war did happen. Another meaning of “rape” is that the stronger nation abuses the weaker nation. During the war, stronger countries ignored the call for help from China and forgot the Nanjing Massacre afterward. By contrast, when adapting the Nanjing Massacre into fictional works, both Yan and Zhang interpret “rape” from a single point of view and manage to find out “hope” in the war. In the novel The Flowers of War, Yan Geling details the problems with patriarchy without adequately illustrating the bigger global picture. She narrates how women use mature female organs to bring out (re)birth. Zhang Yimou, meanwhile, emphasizes the transnational context in his film. He expresses the idea that the Western religion is able to save the fallen Oriental civilization. In this thesis, I argue that in the novel The Flowers of War, Yan narrates how the inner strength of Chinese women’s bodies gets to solve the crisis of death; however, in the film version, Zhang seeks the external power – Western cultures – to cure the Chinese trauma. Nevertheless, both these two narrative strategies expose several problems: Yan represents the abjection of women, and Zhang shows the self-Orientalism tendency.

Far from signalling the end of social dialogue, the Marikana massacre underscores the importance of refining and adapting existing peak-level negotiating fora such as the National Economic, Development and Labour Council (Nedlac). To ensure social dialogue remains an integral component of the South African policy-making and national decision-making system, social partners rely on a system of consultation and dialogue to build on a shared national vision. Dialogue is accepted as a means of consolidating a young, democratic but deeply divided South African society. It’s also a medium through which to enhance participation in policy formulation and decision-making. The study reaffirms the critical role that social dialogue plays in a developing economy such as South Africa using the case study of the Marikana massacre to illustrate this point. However, through an analysis of official documents and media reports, as well as selected interviews, the study highlights that the effectiveness of social dialogue through a statutory structure such as Nedlac, is at risk of collapse due to the low levels of commitment of the social partners involved in the Council’s processes. The enhanced maturity of collective bargaining in creating a platform for engagement between labour and business is also emphasised through the outcomes of the research. The research recommends an overhaul of social dialogue principles and practices in order to derive benefit from the numerous benefits inherent in social dialogue. / Mini Dissertation (MSocSci)--University of Pretoria 2017. / Sociology / MSocSci / Unrestricted

O objetivo da presente pesquisa foi investigar a função informativa da legenda fotográfica no caso do Massacre do Realengo, analisando as relações entre a linguagem verbal e a visual no jornalismo contemporâneo. Foram estudados os contextos em que a fotografia jornalística transita como discurso pelos meios de comunicação, cujos alcances estão se expandindo pelas novas tecnologias. O corpus da pesquisa contou com 39 capas das edições impressas de jornais brasileiros do dia 8/4/2011, para o estudo de caso da tragédia conhecida como Massacre do Realengo. Foram utilizadas principalmente as metodologias de análise iconográfica de Kossoy e Gervereau, comparadas à análise das unidades de informação (quem, onde, quando, o que e como) contidas nas legendas fotográficas inspiradas nas metodologias de Morin e Santos. Foi aplicado também questionário sobre legenda fotográfica, respondido pelos jornalistas das redações dos jornais estudados (redatores-chefes, editores executivos, diretores de redação ou editores de fotografia). Constatou-se que mais de 50% dos jornais publicaram as fotografias do caso com suas respectivas legendas. Ao separar cada unidade de informação, verificou-se como a função informativa em cada caso promovia o diálogo entre o sentido imagético da fotografia e o sentido lógico do texto. A outra metade das fotografias publicadas formou predominantemente narrativas que facilitaram sua entrada na instância da imagem ao vivo, conceito elaborado por Bucci. Foi, enfim, possível concluir que a legenda fotográfica como unidade visual de fácil percepção do leitor cumpriu sua função informativa de dar suporte de sentido à imagem iconográfica em diálogo com outros módulos de texto do jornal, em geral, sob as seguintes tendências: 1) algumas legendas, redigidas com base nas unidades de informação, deram suporte de sentido à imagem; 2) algumas legendas continham apenas descrição do que se via na imagem e, portanto, não deram nenhum suporte de sentido à imagem; 3) e, outras, foram escritas com informações que não se relacionaram com as imagens e deram suporte de sentido à reportagem em geral e à mensagem sensacionalista que a maioria dos jornais pretendeu transmitir. / The goal of this research was to investigate the informative function of photographic captions focused on the case of the Massacre of Realengo, analyzing the relation between verbal and visual language in contemporary journalism. The essay analyses the contexts in which journalistic photography transits as a discourse through the media, which reaches have been expanded due to the new information technologies. The corpus of this research included 39 first pages of Brazilian newspapers printed editions, dated April 8th 2011, for the study of a tragedy known as the Massacre of Realengo. Kossoy and Gervereau\'s iconographic analysis methods were the most used, and they were compared to the analysis of information units (who, where, when, what and how), contained in the captions inspired by Morin and Santos´ methods. A questionnaire about photographic caption had also been applied to newsrooms\' journalists of the analysed newspapers (editor in chief, executive editors, newsroom directors or photo editors). It was found that over 50% of the newspapers published photographs of the event with their respective captions. By separating each information unit, it was verified how the informative function in each case promoted the dialogue between the imagery sense of the photograph and the logical sense of the text. The other half of the published photographs formed mostly narratives that facilitated their entry into the instance of the live image, a concept developed by Bucci. It was finally concluded that the photographic caption, as a visual unit of easy perception for the readers, fulfilled its reporting function to support the sense of iconographic image in dialogue with other modules of the newspaper text, in general, under the following trends: 1) some captions, written based on the information units, provided support for the meaning of the image; 2) some captions contained only description of what was being seen in the image, therefore, they did not give any support for the meaning of the image; 3) and others were written with information which did not relate to the images, giving sense support to the overall report and to the sensationalist message which most newspapers intended to transmit.

O Massacre do Carandiru foi um evento crítico que dizimou mais de uma centena de presidiários na Casa de Detenção de São Paulo, em 2 de outubro de 1992. Ao expor a vida carcerária de forma dramática, o Massacre inaugura uma nova relação entre o dentro e o fora do cárcere, fazendo com que a sociedade extramuros volte a sua atenção para a vida prisional. Essa nova relação pode ser percebida e analisada a partir de um tipo de produção literária que ganhou espaço após a virada do século, momento em que alguns presos tiveram seus livros publicados, convertendo-se em autores e despertando um interesse do maior do público pelo universo prisional. Esta pesquisa toma como base para a compreensão sobre as novas relações que se estabelecem, a partir do evento trágico, entre o interior e o exterior da prisão, seis volumes publicados na década de 2000: Memórias de um Sobrevivente (2001), de Luiz Alberto Mendes, Vidas no Carandiru, Histórias Reais (2002), de Humberto Rodrigues, Sobrevivente André Du Rap (do Massacre do Carandiru) (2002), de André du Rap e Bruno Zeni, Pavilhão 9, Paixão e Morte no Carandiru (2001), de Hosmany Ramos, Letras de Liberdade (2000), vários autores, publicado pela Madras Editora e O Direito do Olhar: Publicar para Replicar (2009), publicado pelo Instituto de Defesa do Direito de Defesa. A análise de tais volumes permitiu lançar uma reflexão sobre as maneiras pelas quais os autores presos interpretam a prisão; a sua relação com o que se encontra fora das grades; as maneiras pelas quais constroem a memória. Permitiu, também, uma compreensão sobre a prática da escrita prisional, revelando as maneiras pelas quais as narrativas circulam dentro e fora do cárcere e como fazem circular afetos, memórias, pedidos de ajuda e ideias. Tais textos revelam, ainda, as disputas simbólicas voltadas para a prática da escrita no cárcere, nas quais sentidos pré-determinados sobre a prática são apropriados pelos presos e por eles reelaborados, oferecendo novos sentidos para a narrativa e para a própria experiência prisional. Essa literatura, portanto, evidencia um tipo de relação específica entre o dentro e o fora do cárcere, relação pautada na circulação de um tipo específico de texto, que movimenta sentidos e interpretações, tanto sobre a sociedade quanto sobre o próprio cárcere. / The Carandiru Massacre was a critical event that decimated more than a hundred prisoners at the São Paulo Detention House on October 2, 1992. The Massacre revealed a new relationship between the inside and outside of a prison by dramatically exposing prison life, making society outside the prison turn its attention to prison life. This new relationship can be perceived and analyzed from a type of literary production that gained space after the turn of the century, when some prisoners had their books published, becoming authors and arousing the interest of a large audience by the prison setting. In order to understand the new relationships established from the tragic event between the interior and exterior of the prison, the present study was based on six books published in the 2000s: Memórias de um Sobrevivente (2001), by Luiz Alberto Mendes, Vidas no Carandiru, Histórias Reais (2002), Humberto Rodrigues, Sobrevivente André Du Rap (do Massacre do Carandiru) (2002), André du Rap and Bruno Zeni, Pavilhão 9, Paixão e Morte no Carandiru (2001), by Hosmany Ramos, Letras de Liberdade (2000), several authors, published by Madras Editoria and O Direito do Olhar: Publicar para Replicar (2009), published by the Institute of Defense of the Right of Defense. The analysis of these books has given rise to a reflection on the way how the arrested authors interpret prison; its relation with what is outside the grids; and how they build memory. It also allowed a better understanding of the practice of prison writing, revealing the way narratives circulate - in and out of prison - and how they express affections, memories, requests for help, and ideas. These texts also reveal the symbolic disputes involved in the practice of prison writing, in which predetermined senses of practice are appropriated by the prisoners and reworked, offering new meanings for the narrative and the prison experience. Therefore, this type of literature reveals a specific type of relationship between the inside and outside of prison based on the circulation of a specific type of text, which enables senses and interpretations of society and the prison itself.

O objetivo da presente pesquisa foi investigar a função informativa da legenda fotográfica no caso do Massacre do Realengo, analisando as relações entre a linguagem verbal e a visual no jornalismo contemporâneo. Foram estudados os contextos em que a fotografia jornalística transita como discurso pelos meios de comunicação, cujos alcances estão se expandindo pelas novas tecnologias. O corpus da pesquisa contou com 39 capas das edições impressas de jornais brasileiros do dia 8/4/2011, para o estudo de caso da tragédia conhecida como Massacre do Realengo. Foram utilizadas principalmente as metodologias de análise iconográfica de Kossoy e Gervereau, comparadas à análise das unidades de informação (quem, onde, quando, o que e como) contidas nas legendas fotográficas inspiradas nas metodologias de Morin e Santos. Foi aplicado também questionário sobre legenda fotográfica, respondido pelos jornalistas das redações dos jornais estudados (redatores-chefes, editores executivos, diretores de redação ou editores de fotografia). Constatou-se que mais de 50% dos jornais publicaram as fotografias do caso com suas respectivas legendas. Ao separar cada unidade de informação, verificou-se como a função informativa em cada caso promovia o diálogo entre o sentido imagético da fotografia e o sentido lógico do texto. A outra metade das fotografias publicadas formou predominantemente narrativas que facilitaram sua entrada na instância da imagem ao vivo, conceito elaborado por Bucci. Foi, enfim, possível concluir que a legenda fotográfica como unidade visual de fácil percepção do leitor cumpriu sua função informativa de dar suporte de sentido à imagem iconográfica em diálogo com outros módulos de texto do jornal, em geral, sob as seguintes tendências: 1) algumas legendas, redigidas com base nas unidades de informação, deram suporte de sentido à imagem; 2) algumas legendas continham apenas descrição do que se via na imagem e, portanto, não deram nenhum suporte de sentido à imagem; 3) e, outras, foram escritas com informações que não se relacionaram com as imagens e deram suporte de sentido à reportagem em geral e à mensagem sensacionalista que a maioria dos jornais pretendeu transmitir. / The goal of this research was to investigate the informative function of photographic captions focused on the case of the Massacre of Realengo, analyzing the relation between verbal and visual language in contemporary journalism. The essay analyses the contexts in which journalistic photography transits as a discourse through the media, which reaches have been expanded due to the new information technologies. The corpus of this research included 39 first pages of Brazilian newspapers printed editions, dated April 8th 2011, for the study of a tragedy known as the Massacre of Realengo. Kossoy and Gervereau\'s iconographic analysis methods were the most used, and they were compared to the analysis of information units (who, where, when, what and how), contained in the captions inspired by Morin and Santos´ methods. A questionnaire about photographic caption had also been applied to newsrooms\' journalists of the analysed newspapers (editor in chief, executive editors, newsroom directors or photo editors). It was found that over 50% of the newspapers published photographs of the event with their respective captions. By separating each information unit, it was verified how the informative function in each case promoted the dialogue between the imagery sense of the photograph and the logical sense of the text. The other half of the published photographs formed mostly narratives that facilitated their entry into the instance of the live image, a concept developed by Bucci. It was finally concluded that the photographic caption, as a visual unit of easy perception for the readers, fulfilled its reporting function to support the sense of iconographic image in dialogue with other modules of the newspaper text, in general, under the following trends: 1) some captions, written based on the information units, provided support for the meaning of the image; 2) some captions contained only description of what was being seen in the image, therefore, they did not give any support for the meaning of the image; 3) and others were written with information which did not relate to the images, giving sense support to the overall report and to the sensationalist message which most newspapers intended to transmit.

Drawing on recent attempts to reconcile the divergent nations of Hispaniola, I will examine the ways in which fiction by U.S. immigrant writers Danticat and Rosario looks back to the traumatic history of race relations on Hispaniola and the 1937 massacre as a means of approaching reconciliation and healing amongst the inhabitants of Hispaniola. As invested outsiders to their homelands, Danticat and Rosario may work, as Chancy suggests, in the capacity of actors for Hispaniola. Both Danticat and Rosario graciously admit that their writing is largely contingent on the relative freedom from censure that their American citizenship affords them. In this capacity, these immigrant writers are uniquely able to revisit a traumatic cultural past to give voice to its widely arrayed victims and to provide an interrogation of the makings of horrific brutality. Despite the largely U.S. American readership, these authors foster a form of reconciliation through their works by forcing the audience to move past dichotomous thinking about the massacre, but also about the boundaries between the two nations. “…in traumatic times like ours, when reality itself is so distorted as to have become impossible and abnormal, it is the function of all culture, partaking of this abnormality, to be aware of its own sickness. To be aware of the unreality or inauthenticity of the so-called real, is to reinterpret this reality. To reinterpret this reality is to commit oneself to a constant revolutionary assault against it.” (―We Must Learn to Sit Down and Talk about a Little Culture,‖ Sylvia Wynter 31)