This dissertation contains three distinct chapters considering different challenges faced by a developing country; India. Chapter 1. Food price spikes induced by hot weather could be a threat to food security, human health and poverty. It could exacerbate the health status of households by reducing the nutrient food choices, particularly among the vulnerable groups who already have a more frail status. This paper examines the first possible causal link between milk average market price and hot weather in the short run at the household level in India. Using Human Development Survey data, it is empirically showed that hot weather has a significant adverse impact on the price in rural India. The impacts are more pronounced for non-poor families in both rural and urban areas. The effects are robust to alternative heat metrics. The paper further investigates the effect of hot weather on households' milk consumption. Evidence suggests that low-income (poor) families with purchased consumption, both in rural and urban areas, are significantly adversely affected compared to those with homegrown product. Chapter 2. Health-related behaviour and, in particular, attending antenatal care during pregnancy is essential to reduce the risk of pregnancy complications, stillbirth, and maternal mortality. This paper estimates the causal effect of years of formal education on the likelihood that a pregnant woman in India attends natal care and screening services. Despite the importance, insufficient documents exist on the determinants of natal care usage in developing countries. The current study investigates for the first time the hypothesis that women’s schooling attainments might have a causal impact on natal care usage in India. Drawing on the nationally representative India Human Development Survey (IHDS-II) and instrumenting for years of schooling with plausibly exogenous variation in age at first menarche, I find that delayed age at menarche significantly increases formal education. Further, evidence suggests that an additional year of schooling significantly enhances the likelihood of uptaking the antenatal checkups. However, attending a sonogram/ultrasound does not appear to be significant. Chapter 3. Adolescent girls are amongst the vulnerable groups exposed to the risks that challenge their healthy development into young women. India's Rajiv Gandhi Scheme for Empowerment of Adolescent Girls (SABLA) program was designed to address such challenges by building health awareness and encouraging decision-making autonomy as the first steps towards real change in women’s development. Using data from the nationally representative India Demographic and Health Survey (IDHS), with plausibly exogenous variation in the program’s rollout across districts and birth cohorts, we provide evidence that exposure to SABLA increases the likelihood of having knowledge of family planning and diarrhoea treatment, using contraception, and autonomy in personal financial decision-making for exposed women. The effects are more pronounced for women residing in urban areas, for women who have secondary education or higher, and primarily for Muslim women.

This study explores folk medical beliefs and practices regarding women's health issues and the female body, specifically menstruation, pregnancy, abortion and menopause, in the Southern Appalachian region. This research reveals what information was given to young girls, by whom was it given, and the effect this had on their self-image and on how they communicated about their bodies as they matured. Other key elements include the social restrictions surrounding menstruation and the ways these beliefs were communicated to young girls. In addition, this project presents information on the treatment of symptoms such as cramps, bloating, headaches, excessive bleeding, lack of flow, etc. and how this information was communicated.

Les applications de suivi du cycle menstruel sont aujourd’hui utilisées par des millions de personnes dans le monde. Elles permettent de soutenir et d’aider le suivi des menstruations, de garder des traces des cycles précédents, et de rapporter une variété de symptômes reliés. Les usager·ère·s de ces applications partagent avec les entreprises propriétaires des données sensibles et personnelles sur leur corps et sur leurs ressentis. Cependant, certaines de ces applications partagent ces données avec des tiers. En utilisant ces outils numériques, les usager·ère·s composent donc entre deux éléments en tension : d’un côté, l’utilité de ces applications, et de l’autre, des risques d’atteinte à leur vie privée à travers l’usage de leurs données. Ce mémoire analyse les pratiques et les discours permettant aux usager·ère·s de composer avec cette tension ainsi que les préoccupations qui y sont reliées au prisme des théories féministes sur les données, et sur la surveillance. Pour ce faire, j’ai réalisé plusieurs entrevues semi-dirigées collectives, des focus groups de 2 à 3 participant·e·s, avec des personnes menstruées, qui utilisent une application de suivi menstruel. La recherche fait ressortir que les usager·ère·s ne considèrent pas forcément les données sur les menstruations qu’elles partagent comme des données intimes et personnelles, et que certain·e·s ne savent pas vraiment à quels usages peuvent servir ces données, ce qui soulève des questions quant au consentement éclairé et valide lors de l’usage de ces applications. La plupart des personnes, bien que dérangées par la surveillance de leurs données de suivi menstruel, l’acceptent dans leurs pratiques quotidiennes, au même titre que la surveillance numérique générale. Selon les personnes interrogées, ces applications sont utiles et pratiques au niveau individuel, mais elles peuvent aussi avoir une utilité à un niveau collectif, dans ce qu’elles peuvent accomplir pour la recherche sur les menstruations, la valorisation du ressenti des femmes et de leur bien-être, des éléments que la discussion collective a permis de mettre de l’avant. / Period tracking applications are now used by millions of people around the world. They support and assist in tracking menstrual cycles, keeping track of previous cycles, and reporting a variety of related symptoms. Users of these applications share sensitive and personal data about their bodies and feelings with the companies that own them. However, some of these applications share their users’ data with third parties. By using these digital tools, users need therefore to deal with two elements in tension: on the one hand, the usefulness of these applications, and on the other, the risks of invasion of their privacy through the use of their data. This thesis analyzes the practices and discourses that allow users to deal with this tension and the concerns related to it using the perspective of data feminism theory and feminist surveillance studies. I conducted several semi-structured group interviews, focus groups of 2-3 participants, with menstruating individuals who use a menstrual tracking application. The research highlights that users do not necessarily consider the menstrual data they share as intimate and personal, and that some of them do not really know how these data can be used, which raises questions about informed and valid consent to use these applications. Most people, while bothered by the monitoring of their menstrual data, accept it as part of their daily practices, along with general digital monitoring. According to the interviewees, these applications are useful and practical on an individual level, but they can also be useful on a collective level, in what they can accomplish for research on menstruation, valuing women's feelings and well-being, issues that the collective discussion brought forward.

The portrayal of women in commercials is intertwined with patriarchal structures and power hierarchies found in Western contemporary society, which stem from the Judeo-Christian binary of a ‘clean/messy’ body as introduced by St. Augustine (354 – 430 CE). This portrayal of women and its effect on their self-esteem, as well as consumerism, have considerable implications for the gender dynamics in modern Western societies. Therefore, the aim of this thesis is to explore the interdependent relationship between feminine hygiene product commercials, feminist movements and women’s self-esteem.  The goal of this thesis is twofold. First, a multimodal discourse analysis of four advertisements from Always and Venus will be performed to uncover to what extent feminine hygiene product commercials are adjusting their portrayal of the female body according to feminist movements. Secondly, four qualitative semi-structured interviews will be conducted to examine how the portrayal of women in these commercials affect women’s self-esteem. This thesis’ research draws from feminist theories, Representation Theory, Consumer Culture Theory (CCT), and the Hierarchy of Effects Theory (HET).  The findings of the analysis imply that the companies have made some adjustments in the way they are portraying women in accordance with the feminist movements. However, both the analysis of the commercials and the interviews imply that more improvements are necessary. The thesis comes to the conclusion that feminine hygiene product commercials can affect the self-esteem of women by creating (unrealistic) norms about how a female body should look and function.

Studien behandlar den komplexa problematiken kring konsumentmedvetenhet och val av mensskydd, där bristande lagstiftning, företags marknadsföring och det kulturella tabut kring menstruation spelar en central roll. Genom att fokusera på svenska konsumenters medvetenhet om kemikalier i mensskydd och deras produktval undersöker studien vilken information konsumenter har tillgång till och hur detta påverkar deras val av mensskydd. Studien kombinerar en litteraturstudie och en enkätundersökning för att ge en djupare förståelse för ämnet. Enkäten besvarades av 79 menstruerande personer, och hade en blandning av fritextsvar och färdiga svarsalternativ. Det finns även indikationer på att menstrosor är en växande produktkategori, dock finns det potentiella problem med tillsatta ämnen i vissa av dessa produkter. En analys av produktbeskrivningar för menstrosor genomfördes för att se om dessa påverkar konsumenters val av produkt. Resultatet indikerade att konsumenter sällan jämför olika märken eller läser på om menstrosor före köp. Studien indikerar även på att konsumenternas medvetenhet om mensskydd generellt är låg, men att det finns en förväntan om säkra produkter och striktare krav på företag. Trots detta finner många respondenter det svårt att navigera bland vilseledande marknadsföring, samt tenderar att prioritera andra faktorer som komfort och absorptionsförmåga i valet av mensskydd. Tidigare forskning visar dock på exempel där påtryckningar från konsumenter om säkra mensskydd har lett till positiva förändringar. Konsumentmedvetenhet är därmed avgörande för utvecklingen av säkra mensskydd, med lagstiftning som stöd. Sammanfattningsvis betonar studien behovet av transparent produktinformation och framhåller vikten av fortsatt forskning och åtgärder för att öka medvetenheten och främja en informerad konsumtion. / This research addresses the complex issue of consumer awareness and choices of menstrual products, where inadequate legislation, corporate marketing, and the cultural taboo surrounding menstruation play a central role. By examining Swedish consumers' awareness of chemicals in menstrual products, as well as their product choices, the study also examines the information available to consumers and how it affects their preferred options of products. The study combines a literature review and a survey to provide a deeper understanding of the subject. The survey was answered by 79 menstruating individuals and included a mix of open-ended responses and predefined response options. There are indications that menstrual underwear is a growing product category; however, there are potential issues with added chemicals in some of these products. An analysis of product descriptions for menstrual underwear was conducted to determine if these descriptions influence consumers' product choices. The results indicated that consumers rarely compare different brands or research menstrual underwear before purchasing. The study also suggests that consumer awareness of menstrual products in general is low, but that there is an expectation of safe products and stricter requirements for companies. However, many respondents find it difficult to navigate through misleading marketing and tend to prioritize other factors, such as comfort and absorbency when choosing menstrual products. Previous research has shown examples where consumers have demanded safe menstrual products which have led to positive changes. Consumer awareness is thus crucial for the development of safe menstrual products, with regulated laws as support. In summary, the study emphasizes the need for transparent product information and highlights the importance of continued research and measures to increase consumer awareness.

The Hadza, residing near Lake Eyasi in northern Tanzania, represent one of the last remaining hunter-gatherer populations. Inhabiting the same area as our hominin ancestors and exploiting very similar resources, the Hadza maintain a foraging lifestyle characterised by a sexual division of labour. Studies of their foraging and food sharing habits serve as the foundation to numerous hypotheses of human behaviour and evolution. Data from the Hadza have featured heavily in debates on the sexual division of labour. These debates focus predominantly on men’s foraging, including how and why men provision. Women’s provisioning, on the other hand, is seldom explicitly examined and is often presumed to be constrained by reproduction. This thesis contributes to debates on the sexual division of labour by investigating how a woman’s reproductive status affects her foraging behaviours. Observational data on women’s foraging are investigated from 263 person/day follows (1,307 hours total) across 10 camps between 2004 and 2006. These data present the first quantitative documentation of forager women’s eating and sharing outside of camp. Interview data on women’s reproductive timeline are also analysed from in-depth interviews with 58 women from 9 camps in 2015. Spanning from menarche to menopause, these data offer the first quantitative and qualitative documentation of forager women’s menstruation. The results demonstrate that Hadza women eat and share over 800 kilocalories outside of camp per person/day. They regularly give and receive food, including gifts of honey from men. Breastfeeding women are more likely to give gifts and give more gifts than non-breastfeeding women. When they bring nurslings with them outside of camp, they forage less kilocalories per hour. Post-menopausal women eat less relative to what they forage, are less likely to receive gifts, rest less and forage more than pre-menopausal women. Although Hadza women describe their foraging workload as most difficult during late pregnancy, no significant differences in eating, sharing, resting or foraging are observed for pregnant women. Menstrual data from the Hadza reveal that menstruation is not only culturally relevant to the sexual division of labour, but it is also biologically relevant to current understandings of fertility. The majority (60%) of Hadza women report not doing their normal work during menstruation. They also report menstruation-related taboos for berry picking. The thesis presents an in-depth review of women’s menstruation, from the duration of menses to the menstrual cleaning process.

Menstrual management is a pervasive issue for women globally, and it becomes critical in times of crisis. During these times of crisis and disaster, humanitarian response seeks to provide relief of suffering by meeting essential needs, in a comprehensive and predictable manner. Yet the provision of menstrual management remains largely ad hoc. Through a comprehensive literature review of documents pertaining to menstrual management in emergencies, this paper offers a qualitative analysis of modern humanitarian strategic approaches, to explore the place of menstrual management in emergencies. The core findings are that menstrual management is not fodder for strategy in humanitarian aid, and therefore lacks a ‘home’ in any of the humanitarian approaches to response. It is not fully integrated into either technical strategic implementation, typified by the cluster approach, nor through cultural implementation approaches, typified by gender mainstreaming. This paper also offers some explanations of why such an omnipresent need has, as yet, remained un-championed. This discussion is based on a theoretical framework offered by feminist theory. Supplemented by an understanding of organisations as gendered structures (Acker, 1990), this thesis posits that these cavities in modern humanitarian response are due to the inherent inability and reluctance of the humanitarian system to concern itself with a bodily, female issue such as menstrual management.

The thesis seeks to explain the sexual passages of women related to fertility, such as menstruation, pregnancy and birth, in the ancient Egyptian world. The passages related to fertility have strong connotations with death in the Egyptian mythological context. The aim of the thesis is to understand this relationship, often metaphorically conveyed in iconography or in the netherworld literature. The thesis collects material from various sources, archeological, textual, iconographical, not only Egyptian, but also Greek and Roman. The methods used vary from cognitive linguistics and semiotic analysis to religious anthropology. Menstruation, pregnancy and birth in ancient Egypt are explained not only on the level of the understanding of the body of the Egyptians, but also in terms of what role they play in iconography and mythology. Furthermore, the relationship between birth and death is made with regards to fertility. The basic findings of this thesis consist of illustrating a dichotomy between the feminine nurturing principle of and masculine creative principle which appear in different contexts related to birth and death: in iconography, on the level of bodily fluids, or in mythological creation.

Made available in DSpace on 2014-07-29T15:29:19Z (GMT). No. of bitstreams: 1 dissertacao Dejan.pdf: 1549821 bytes, checksum: 1b164cc5ae65155bd615835e3ab66f19 (MD5) Previous issue date: 2009-09-17 / BACKGROUND: The Systemic Lupus Erythematosus (SLE) is an autoimmune disease that affects mainly women, and studies have shown that the use of immunosuppressants (IS) during SLE treatment may affect ovarian function. OBJECTIVES: This study aimed at the determination of possible associations in various IS therapeutic schemes and disturb in the ovarian function, through evaluation of menstrual cycle disturb and detection of premature ovarian failure in women with SLE. METHODS: A cross sectional study was conducted in 87 women, aged less than 40 years old that use IS in therapeutic scheme, as follows: prednisone, azathioprine, cyclophosphamide or methrotrexate, either alone or in a combination regime. The ovarian dysfunction was evaluated by the occurrence of menstrual disturbances such as hypermenorrhea, polymenorrhea, menorrhagia, oligomenorrhea, hypomenorrhea and amenorrhea and those diagnosed with premature ovarian failure. RESULTS: The values obtained by the study are expressed in years, mean and standard deviation. The age of the patients varied from 14 to 38 years old, with a mean age of 28.01 ± 5.81 years. The patients reached menarche between 10 and 19 years of age, with a mean age of 13.12 ± 1.77 years. The SLE diagnosis was established when the patients had between 10 and 35 years of age, with a mean age of 21.40 ± 5.75 years. When treatment is considered, 63.2% of the patients were being treated with of prednisone at the time of the study. The mean estradiol dosages used by eumenorrheic patients, patients that presented menstrual disturbances or in women with amenorrhea, was of 90.90 ± 120.78; 91.90 ± 64.77 and 115.97 ± 63.60; respectively, and the mean FSH dosages used by these same groups of patients was of 25.73 ± 34.46; 39.44 ± 59.82 and 54.40 ± 56.07; respectively. Menstrual disturbances were observed in 37.9% of the women evaluated, 11.5% of them had amenorrhea and 5.75% presented premature ovarian failure. There were no significant associations between the alterations in the menstrual cycle of the patients and the use of various dosages of IS and different therapeutic schemes. DISCUSSION: The data revealed that menstrual disturbances and premature ovarian failure were found in a higher frequency that found in the general population by other studies. However, they were similar to those found in previous studies conducted in women with SLE under IS therapy. The corticoids were the most administered drug and were used for the longest period of time, when compared to the other IS. Interestingly, the patients that were in use of corticoids had the highest frequency of menstrual alterations, when compared to the other patients, finding that disagrees with most of the studies from the literature. Among the multiple effects of corticoids in the human organism, are the hypothalamic and pituitary retro inhibitions, which may interfere with the ovaries functions. When treatment with the other IS is considered, it became evident that the lowest frequency of menstrual disturbances occurred in those patients treated with cyclophosphamide. Cumulative dose, age and appropriate duration of treatment could explain this finding. The use of anti-malaria drugs in more than half of the patients could have influenced the results. Additionally, variables in the pharmacological effects of the various drugs, the progression of the disease and multiple drug use could also explain our findings. CONCLUSION: Our data analysis is not sufficient to disregard the possible of risk factors associated with the development of ovarian dysfunction in the SLE women treated with immunossuppressants, when compared with the general population. In our understanding, treatment for SLE should be reevaluated, and future studies with focus on the understanding of the relationships between the SLE and ovarian function in the affected women, as well as on novel mechanisms that will contribute to preserve the ovarian function in these patients are of great importance. / INTRODUÇÃO: O lupus eritematoso sistêmico (LES) é uma doença autoimune que incide mais em mulheres, sendo que a doença e seu tratamento podem afetar a função ovariana. OBJETIVO: O estudo pretendeu buscar associação entre o tratamento com imunossupressores (IS) em pacientes com LES e alterações da função ovariana, medidas por meio das alterações no ciclo menstrual e da detecção de falência ovariana prematura (FOP). MÉTODOS: Corte transversal, incluindo 87 mulheres, com idades inferiores a 40 anos, submetidas ao tratamento com imunossupressores: prednisona, azatioprina, ciclofosfamida, ou metotrexato, em formulação única ou em associação. A disfunção ovariana foi determinada pela presença de alterações menstruais do tipo hipermenorréia, polimenorréia, menorragia, oligomenorréia, hipomenorréia, amenorréia e a falência ovariana prematura. RESULTADOS: Os valores são expressos em anos, média e desvio padrão. A idade das pacientes variou de 14 e 38 anos com a média de 28,01 ± 5,81 anos. As pacientes tiveram menarca registrada entre 10 e 19 anos, com média de idade 13,12 ± 1,77 anos, o diagnóstico de LES estabelecido entre 10 e 35, e a média de idade de 21,40 ± 5,75 anos. Quanto aos medicamentos, 63,2% dessas mulheres usavam a prednisona no momento do estudo. A dosagem de estradiol em pacientes eumenorreicas, com alterações menstruais e amenorreicas foi em média 90,90 ± 120,78; 91,90 ± 64,77 e 115,97 ± 63,60, respectivamente. A dosagem de FSH foi em média 25,73 ± 34,46; 39,44 ± 59,82 e 54,40 ± 56,07, respectivamente. As alterações menstruais foram observadas em 37,9% das mulheres examinadas, 11,5% tiveram amenorréia e 5,75% apresentaram falência ovariana prematura. As alterações do ciclo menstrual não tiveram associação significativa com o uso das diferentes formulações de imunossupressores. DISCUSSÃO: Alterações menstruais e falência ovariana prematura foram encontradas em frequência superior à população geral, mas semelhante a outras pesquisas com lúpicas usando imunossupressores. Os corticóides foram os medicamentos mais usados em número de pacientes e de tempo de uso, sendo que as que utilizaram esse imunossupressor apresentaram mais alterações menstruais, o que o diferencia da maioria das publicações. Pode-se aventar que além das múltiplas ações dos corticóides, destaca-se a retroinibição hipotalâmica e hipofisária com implicações para a função ovariana. Em relação aos outros IS ficou evidente a pouca frequência de alterações com a ciclofosfamida. Dose cumulativa, idade e tempo de uso adequado podem explicar esta verificação. O uso de antimaláricos em mais da metade das pacientes também pode ter influído nos resultados. Também variáveis de efeitos farmacológicos, evolução da doença e múltiplas drogas podem explicar diferentes resultados em relação a outras pesquisas. CONCLUSÃO: Os dados analisados não são suficientes para desconsiderarmos os fatores de risco associado com o desenvolvimento de alterações ovarianas em mulheres com lupus tratadas com IS quando comparadas com a população geral. É pertinente as pesquisas que orientem os processos terapêuticos ou a compreensão das relações entre o lupus eritematoso sistêmico e a função ovariana das mulheres afetadas com essa doença. Justifica-se, também, a busca de mecanismos que preservem a função ovariana.

This diploma thesis discusses the image of menstruation in the mass media and in user generated content. Menstruation is a biological process that is essential for reproduction. It not only plays a specific role from the biological point of view, but also from the cultural aspect. Menstruation has remained a taboo and been stigmatised for many years. Today this topic is no longer completely taboo, but some stigma and stereotypes remain. This diploma thesis is based on the theory of social construction of reality, where the mass media is considered one element involved in the construction of this reality. The aim of this work is to analyse the image of menstruation in the mass media created by professionals and compare it with the image of this topic in user generated content created by the public on social networks. Two research methods are used to obtain a comprehensive view of the specific issue - a quantitative content analysis and qualitative framework analysis. The quantitative content analysis is used to establish the frequency and occurrence of the topic of menstruation within mass media. The framework analysis is used to establish how this topic is represented and framed in the mass media and in user generated content.