This thesis explores the use of artificial neural networks for modelling cognitive processes. It presents an exposition of the neural network paradigm, and evaluates its viability in relation to the classical, symbolic approach in cognitive science. Classical researchers have approached the description of cognition by concentrating mainly on an abstract, algorithmic level of description in which the information processing properties of cognitive processes are emphasised. The approach is founded on seminal ideas about computation, and about algorithmic description emanating, amongst others, from the work of Alan Turing in mathematical logic. In contrast to the classical conception of cognition, neural network approaches are based on a form of neurocomputation in which the parallel distributed processing mechanisms of the brain are highlighted. Although neural networks are generally accepted to be more neurally plausible than their classical counterparts, some classical researchers have argued that these networks are best viewed as implementation models, and that they are therefore not of much relevance to cognitive researchers because information processing models of cognition can be developed independently of considerations about implementation in physical systems. In the thesis I argue that the descriptions of cognitive phenomena deriving from neural network modelling cannot simply be reduced to classical, symbolic theories. The distributed representational mechanisms underlying some neural network models have interesting properties such as similarity-based representation, content-based retrieval, and coarse coding which do not have straightforward equivalents in classical systems. Moreover, by placing emphasis on how cognitive processes are carried out by brain-like mechanisms, neural network research has not only yielded a new metaphor for conceptualising cognition, but also a new methodology for studying cognitive phenomena. Neural network simulations can be lesioned to study the effect of such damage on the behaviour of the system, and these systems can be used to study the adaptive mechanisms underlying learning processes. For these reasons, neural network modelling is best viewed as a significant theoretical orientation in the cognitive sciences, instead of just an implementational endeavour. / Psychology / D. Litt. et Phil. (Psychology)

Abductive reasoning is the process of finding the best explanation for a set of observations. The theory of abductive reasoning (TAR, Johnson & Krems, 2001) allows detailed process assumptions that were only partly tested in detail up until now. This thesis employs an artificial abductive reasoning task, the Black Box task, and eye tracking measures in order to gain insight into the process. The first part of this thesis aims at evaluating process measures based on eye tracking and using them in order to gain a better understanding of the processes postulated in TAR such as the construction of a situation model or retrieval of relevant information. The second part investigates the relationship between working memory and abductive reasoning by manipulating the amount of information stored in memory and examining the relationship between visual abductive reasoning and working memory skills. In a last part a perspective to the transferability of our results to everyday life tasks is given. The first study focuses on differentiating between processes that take place during the encoding and the evaluation of observation information by comparing eye movement measures. In the second study, we tested process assumptions such as the construction of a mental representation from TAR using memory indexing, an eye tracking method that makes it possible to trace the retrieval of explanations currently held in working memory. Gaze analysis revealed that participants encode the presented evidence (i.e., observations) together with possible explanations into memory. When new observations are presented, the previously presented evidence and explanations are retrieved. With the memory indexing method, we were able to assess the process of information retrieval in abductive reasoning, which was previously believed to be unobservable. The theory of abductive reasoning (TAR; Johnson & Krems, 2001) assumes that when information is presented sequentially, new information is integrated into a mental representation called a situation model, the central data structure on which all reasoning processes are based. Since working memory capacity is limited, the question arises how reasoning might change with the amount of information that has to be processed in memory. To answer this question, we conducted a third experimental study, in which we manipulated whether previous observation information and previously found explanations had to be retrieved from memory or were still present in the visual array. We analyzed individual ratings of difficulty as well as behavioral data and reasoning outcomes. Our results provide evidence that people experience differences in task difficulty when more information has to be retrieved from memory. This is also evident in changes in the mental representation as reflected by eye tracking measures. However, these differences are not evident in the reasoning outcome. These findings suggest that individuals construct their situation model from both information in memory as well as external memory stores. The complexity of the model depends on the task at hand: when memory demands are high, only relevant information is included. With this compensation strategy, people are able to achieve similar reasoning outcomes even when faced with more difficult tasks. The precise relationship between reasoning and working memory capacity remains largely opaque. Combining data of both studies from chapter 3 and 4, we firstly investigated if reasoning performance differs due to differences in working memory capacity. Secondly, using eye tracking, we explored the relationship between the facets of working memory and the process of visuospatial reasoning. Therefore both, a test for storage and processing, and content components (verbal-numerical/ spatial) of working memory as well as an intelligence measure, were engaged. Results show a clear relationship between reasoning accuracy, spatial storage and processing components as well as intelligence. Process measures suggest that high spatial working memory ability might lead to the use of strategies optimizing the content and complexity of the mental representation on which abductive reasoning is based. In a fifth study, we aimed to investigate whether there are also indicators for the mechanisms postulated by TAR in a task that is closer to real life reasoning. Therefore, we asked participants to solve 12 jigsaw puzzles whereby the abductive task was the identification of the motive presented on the puzzles. Thereby, the pieces of the puzzles posed as observation and hypotheses to the motive of the puzzle as explanations. As a process tracing measure, we used thinking aloud. Verbal protocols were recorded, transcripted and carefully coded according to the operators and explanation types postulated in TAR. We found evidence that participants use most of the operators with a likeliness that significantly lies above chance level. We also found evidence of the existence of the different explanation types. Eye movements were able to give insight in the interrelations between working memory, attention, and action. Therefore, this work contributes to understanding abductive reasoning, not only by testing the assumptions of TAR, but also by finding relations between memory, action and thought. The results do not only account for abductive reasoning in an artificial task but also in everyday life reasoning.:1 Introduction 1 1.1 Theories on Abductive Reasoning and Beyond 4 1.1.1 Theory of Abductive Reasoning 4 1.1.2 Other Theories 7 1.2 Reasoning, Working Memory, and Mental Representation 9 1.3 Process Tracing 11 1.4 An Artificial Abductive Task: The Black Box 12 1.5 Overview and Research Objectives 15 1.5.1 Differentiating between Encoding and Processing 15 1.5.2 Current Explanations in Memory 16 1.5.3 Information Stored in Memory 16 1.5.4 More than Storage of Information 17 1.5.5 In the Context of Everyday Life 18 1.5.6 Summary, Perspectives, and Conclusion 18 2 The Possibilities of Eye Tracking: Differentiating between Encoding and Processing 21 2.1 Abstract 22 2.2 Introduction 23 2.3 Method 26 2.3.1 Participants 26 2.3.2 Task and Apparatus 27 2.3.3 Procedure 28 2.3.4 Analysis 29 2.4 Results 30 2.5 Discussion 32 3 Tracing Current Explanations in Memory: A Process Analysis Based on Eye Tracking 37 3.1 Abstract 38 3.2 Introduction 39 3.2.1 Current Explanations of Abductive Reasoning 41 3.2.2 Tracing the Reasoning Process 44 3.2.3 Present Study 45 3.3 Method 48 3.3.1 Participants 49 3.3.2 Apparatus 49 3.3.3 Material 50 3.3.4 Procedure 53 3.4 Results 54 3.4.1 Performance 54 3.4.2 Gaze Analyses 55 3.4.3 Hypothesis 1: Information Stored in the Situation Model 57 3.4.4 Hypothesis 2: Different Types of Explanations—Concrete vs. Abstract 61 3.5 Discussion 67 3.5.1 Information Stored in the Situation Model 68 3.5.2 Concretely and Abstractly Explained Observations 68 3.5.3 TAR and Current Theories on Abductive Reasoning 70 3.5.4 Tracing Memory Processes 72 3.5.5 Conclusion 74 Appendix 3.1 75 Appendix 3.2 76 Appendix 3.3 77 Appendix 3.4 78 4 Information Stored in Memory Affects Abductive Reasoning 79 4.1 Abstract 80 4.2 Introduction 81 4.2.1 The Reasoning Process 82 4.2.2 Visual Attention 85 4.2.3 Research Objectives 86 4.2.4 This Study 87 4.2.5 Using Eye Movements as a Method to Assess Memory Retrieval 89 4.2.6 Hypotheses 89 4.3 Method 92 4.3.1 Participants 92 4.3.2 Apparatus 92 4.3.3 The Black Box Task 92 4.3.4 Procedure 95 4.3.5 Pairwise Comparisons 96 4.4 Results 96 4.4.1 Performance 96 4.4.2 Gaze Analysis 99 4.4.3 Hypothesis 1: Differences Experienced in Task Difficulty 101 4.4.4 Hypothesis 2: Elements of the Situation Model 102 4.4.5 Hypothesis 3: Integrative Solutions 105 4.5 Discussion 107 4.5.1 Differences Experienced in Task Difficulty 108 4.5.2 Elements of the Situation Model 108 4.5.3 Integrative Solutions 110 4.5.4 Summary 112 5 More than Storage of Information – What Working Memory Contributes to Visual Abductive Reasoning 113 5.1 Abstract 114 5.2 Introduction 115 5.2.1 Working memory 116 5.2.2 Relations between Abductive Reasoning Working Memory Capacity 118 5.2.3 Eye Movements as a Process Tracing Method 119 5.2.4 Abductive Reasoning Outcomes and Working Memory Ability. 120 5.2.5 Abductive Reasoning Processes and Working Memory Ability 121 5.3 Method 123 5.3.1 Participants 124 5.3.2 Apparatus 124 5.3.3 Material 125 5.3.4 Procedure 127 5.4 Results 128 5.4.1 Analysis 128 5.4.2 Abductive Reasoning Accuracy and Working Memory Ability 131 5.4.3 Abductive Reasoning Processes and Working Memory Ability 132 5.5 Discussion 135 5.5.1 The Interaction of Reasoning Accuracy and Memory Ability 135 5.5.2 The Interaction of the Process of Reasoning and Memory Ability 136 5.5.3 Conclusion 138 6 The Theory of Abductive Reasoning in the Context of Everyday Life 141 6.1 Abstract 142 6.2 Introduction 143 6.2.1 Abduction in “Real Life” 145 6.3 Method 146 6.3.1 Participants 146 6.3.2 Task 147 6.3.3 Material 148 6.3.4 Apparatus 148 6.3.5 Procedure 149 6.3.6 Coding system 150 6.4 Results 153 6.4.1 Analysis 153 6.4.2 Descriptive Data 153 6.3.3. Likeliness of Operator Use 155 6.5 Discussion 156 6.5.1 Operator Use 156 6.5.2 Explanation Types 157 6.5.3 Perspectives 158 7 Summary, Perspectives, and Conclusion 159 7.1 The Process of Abductive Reasoning 159 7.2 Contributions of other Theories 162 7.3 Eye Tracking and its Methodological Implications 164 7.4 Future Research and Applications 167 7.5 Conclusion 169 8 References 171 Curriculum Vitae 191 Publications 196

Le sens du nombre est un des piliers des apprentissages en arithmétique. Son acquisition permet, entre autres, de comprendre notre système de numération. Dans les années 1980, des chercheures se sont intéressées aux difficultés associées à l’apprentissage de la numération et ont énoncé une série de recommandations pour favoriser la compréhension de ce concept. Ces recherches sont encore aujourd’hui des recherches phares et plusieurs études s’en sont inspirées. Des études plus récentes montrent cependant que les difficultés liées à l’apprentissage de la numération demeurent les mêmes pour les élèves d’aujourd’hui. L’objectif général de la présente recherche est de mieux comprendre comment se développe le sens du nombre et de la numération, de la petite enfance jusqu’à l’âge de 7-8 ans et de faire ressortir les conditions qui favorisent ce développement. Des recherches montrent que le développement du sens du nombre s’appuie sur la construction de représentations mentales dynamiques et imagées. Pour favoriser cette construction, les élèves doivent avoir accès à des représentations concrètes et imagées aussi variées que fécondes. Des tâches de résolution de problèmes dans lesquelles les élèves s’engagent doivent aussi être prévues pour favoriser les apprentissages. Des recherches montrent enfin que le sens du nombre peut être décrit sous forme de continuum qui se développe du préscolaire à l’âge adulte. Or, aucune étude connue ne s’est intéressée à ce type de progression et n’a tenté d’identifier les conditions qui favorisent ce développement en tenant compte des éléments ci-haut mentionnés. Dans la présente recherche, une proposition de continuum du sens du nombre et de la numération de la petite enfance à 8 ans, s’appuyant sur ces recherches, a été établie. Ce continuum identifie les éléments clés du développement de la compréhension des élèves. Un outil d’évaluation a été construit. Il permet de situer l’élève sur ce continuum. Une séquence didactique a été mise en place. Elle donne l’occasion à l’élève de développer sa compréhension selon ce continuum. Ces instruments s’adressent aux élèves de la fin de la 2e année et du début de la 3e année, soit des enfants de 7-8 ans. La construction de ces instruments constitue un des objectifs spécifiques de cette recherche. Un deuxième objectif est de vérifier la viabilité en contexte de ces instruments auprès de professionnels de l’éducation. Les objectifs de l’étude ont été atteints : les instruments ont été créés, puis leur viabilité en contexte a été évaluée par des professionnels du milieu de l’éducation. Selon l’analyse qualitative des commentaires des participants, l’outil d’évaluation permettrait d’évaluer le niveau de développement du sens du nombre des élèves et de dépister ceux qui ont des difficultés à apprendre ces concepts. Il donnerait aussi l’occasion aux élèves de développer leur sens du nombre, selon leur niveau de compréhension, à travers une séquence d’activités. Une analyse fine des commentaires fait clairement ressortir que le sens du nombre, de même que les conditions à mettre en place pour favoriser son développement, n’occupent pas une assez grande place dans l’enseignement actuel de l’arithmétique au primaire ni dans le Programme de formation de l’école québécoise. Il demeure cependant un prédicteur important de réussite scolaire. C’est pour cette raison que d’autres travaux doivent porter sur les concepts ciblés dans la présente étude afin de mieux accompagner les élèves et leurs enseignants vers la réussite. / Number sense is one of the pillars of learning arithmetic. Its acquisition allows, among other things, to understand our decimal and positional numeral system. In the 1980s, researchers became interested in the difficulties associated with learning numeration by elementary school children. They proposed a framework and a series of recommendation to promote the understanding of this concept. Their research is still a reference today and several studies have been inspired by it. More recent studies, however, show that the difficulties associated with learning numeration remain the same for today’s students. The general objective of this research is to better understand how number sense develops from infancy up to the age of 7-8 years and to highlight the conditions that increase this development. Research shows that the development of number sense and the understanding of mathematical concepts is based on the construction of dynamic and image-based mental representations. To promote this construction, students must be given access to concrete and image-based representations that are as varied as they are fruitful. Problem-solving tasks in which students are called upon to engage must also be included in the planning of mathematical activities to promote student learning. Finally, research shows that number sense can be described as a continuum that develops from preschool to adult life. However, no known study has been focusing on in this type of progression leading to the understanding of numeration and has attempted to identify the conditions to promote the development of number sense by taking into account the above-mentioned elements. In the present study, a proposal for a number sense continuum, from infancy to age 8, has been established. This continuum identifies key elements in the development of student understanding. An evaluation tool has been built. It helps situate the student on this continuum. A didactic sequence has also been built. It gives students the opportunity to develop their understanding along this continuum. These tools were intended for students at the end of Grade 2 and the beginning of Grade 3, i.e. children aged 7-8. The construction of these tools was one of the specific objectives of this research. A second objective was to verify viability in context of these tools with education professionals. The objectives of the study were achieved: the device was created and then the viability in context was evaluated by professionals in the education community. According to the qualitative analysis of participants' comments, the device could make it possible to assess the level of development of the number sense of the students and to identify those who have difficulty in learning this concept. It also could give students the opportunity to develop their number sense, to their level of understanding, through a sequence of activities. A detailed analysis of the comments clearly shows that number sense, as well as the conditions that need to be put in place to promote its development, do not occupy a sufficiently large place in the current teaching of arithmetic at the elementary school level or in the Quebec Education Program. However, it remains an important predictor of academic success. For this reason, further work must be done on the concepts targeted in this study in order to better guide students and their teachers towards success.

There exists a broad inclination among those who theorize about mental representation to assume that the meanings of linguistic units, like words, are going to be identical to, and work exactly like, mental representations, such as concepts. This has the effect of many theorists applying facts that seem to have been discovered about the meanings of linguistic units to mental representations. This is especially so for causal theories of content, which will be the primary exemplars here. It is the contention of this essay that this approach is mistaken. The influence of thinking about language and mental representation in this way has resulted in the adoption of certain positions by a broad swathe of theorists to the effect that the content of a concept is identical to the property in the world that the concept represents, and that because of this a concept only applies to an object in the world or it does not. The consequences of such commitments are what appear to be insoluble problems that arise when trying to account for, or explain, misrepresentation in cognitive systems. This essay presents the position that in order to actually account for misrepresentation, conceptual content must be understood as being very much like measurements, in that the application of a content to an object in the world is akin to measuring said object, and that conceptual content ought be understood as being graded in the same way that measurements are. On this view, then, concepts are the kinds of things that can be applied more, or less, accurately to particular objects in the world, and so are not identical to whatever it is that they represent.

There exists a broad inclination among those who theorize about mental representation to assume that the meanings of linguistic units, like words, are going to be identical to, and work exactly like, mental representations, such as concepts. This has the effect of many theorists applying facts that seem to have been discovered about the meanings of linguistic units to mental representations. This is especially so for causal theories of content, which will be the primary exemplars here. It is the contention of this essay that this approach is mistaken. The influence of thinking about language and mental representation in this way has resulted in the adoption of certain positions by a broad swathe of theorists to the effect that the content of a concept is identical to the property in the world that the concept represents, and that because of this a concept only applies to an object in the world or it does not. The consequences of such commitments are what appear to be insoluble problems that arise when trying to account for, or explain, misrepresentation in cognitive systems. This essay presents the position that in order to actually account for misrepresentation, conceptual content must be understood as being very much like measurements, in that the application of a content to an object in the world is akin to measuring said object, and that conceptual content ought be understood as being graded in the same way that measurements are. On this view, then, concepts are the kinds of things that can be applied more, or less, accurately to particular objects in the world, and so are not identical to whatever it is that they represent.

L’activité de conduite automobile prend place dans un environnement dynamique en constante évolution. Le conducteur doit progresser sur la route au moyen de son véhicule, tout en interagissant adéquatement avec l'environnement et les autres usagers. Pour réaliser cette tâche, le conducteur doit percevoir son environnement, interpréter les événements pour se représenter correctement la situation de conduite, anticiper ces changements, et prendre des décisions afin d'engager des actions sur le véhicule lui permettant d'atteindre les buts qu'il se fixe à court et long terme. A cet égard, la complexité et la diversité des processus perceptifs, cognitifs et sensori-moteurs requis pour la conduite automobile font de cette activité un objet d'étude particulièrement riche pour les sciences de la cognition.Pour étudier l'activité du conducteur automobile afin de la comprendre, l'expliquer et peut-être la prédire, les sciences cognitives se dirigent vers la modélisation de la cognition humaine. Cette démarche permet une représentation et une description plus ou moins fine du système cognitif du conducteur automobile. Cependant, un modèle de la cognition ne permet qu'une description théorique. Grâce à son implémentation informatique, il devient possible de simuler les théories utilisées et déployer numériquement celles mises en jeu dans la modélisation cognitive.Ce travail de thèse s'articule autour de la modélisation cognitive du conducteur automobile, de son implémentation informatique sur une plateforme de développement virtuel et de sa simulation au sein de cette plateforme. Le modèle théorique que nous avons implémenté est COSMODRIVE, en développement au laboratoire du LESCOT à l'IFSTTAR, et la plateforme de développement accueillant le modèle est SIVIC, développée au LIVIC. C'est dans ce contexte que nous nous sommes engagés dans le développement computationnel et informatique du modèle COSMODRIVE, afin de pouvoir simuler l'activité perceptive et cognitive du conducteur automobile. Pour cela, nous nous sommes limités à certains processus cognitifs primordiaux, comme les fonctions stratégiques (planification d'itinéraires et réalisation de plans stratégiques), ou les fonctions perceptives (exploration et intégration de l'information visuelle), les fonctions cognitives tactiques (construction de représentations mentales, intégration perceptivo-cognitive de l'information, structuration des connaissances de conduite, etc), ou encore les fonctions d'exécution d'actions (régulation courte par zones enveloppes ou par points de poursuite).Par l'implémentation informatique du modèle COSMODRIVE sur SIVIC, il devient possible "d'incarner numériquement" des théories cognitives et de les "opérationnaliser" pour formuler des hypothèses de recherche sous la forme de prédictions de performances que l'on pourra évaluer empiriquement auprès de conducteurs humains. Ces hypothèses formulées, nous avons conduit des expérimentations sur un simulateur de conduite que nous avons construit. Afin d'éprouver notre modèle théorique et informatique du conducteur, nous avons comparé les performances des conducteurs humains avec les prédictions issues de la simulation. Les résultats obtenus ont permis de valider cette approche et de confirmer l'intérêt de la simulation cognitive pour appréhender les activités mentales du conducteur automobile. / Driving activity takes place in a dynamic and constantly changing environment. The driver has to make his car evolving on the road while ensuring adequate interactions with its close environment and other road users. In order to perform this task, the driver has to perceive the environment he is evolving in, to interpret events in order to correctly understand the current driving situation, to be able to anticipate its evolution and take decisions regarding vehicle control in order to reach his short and long term goals safely. As a result, both complexity and variety of perceptual, cognitive and sensorimotor processes involved in the driving activity make it very rich context for cognitive sciences.The modeling of human cognition, a specific method which belongs to cognitive sciences field, has been chosen to study driver's activity aiming at understanding, explaining or even predicting it. This approach allows a representation and a description of the driver's cognitive system with different levels of granularity. Thus, such a model offers only a theoretical description. When implemented on a computer, it opens the way to the simulation allowing the digital deployment of the theories involved in the cognitive model design.This thesis is focused on cognitive modeling of car driver, its implementation and its simulation using a virtual platform. The theoretical model that we implemented is COSMODRIVE, developed at IFSTTAR - LESCOT laboratory and the implementation platform we used for this, named SIVIC, is developed at IFSTTAR - LIVIC.This is the context where we started the computational development of the COSMODRIVE model in order to simulate the perceptual and cognitive activity of car driver. Indeed, we chose to limit our implementation to some crucial cognitive processes such as strategic functions (route planning and strategic plans execution), perceptual functions (exploration and integration of visual information), cognitive tactical functions (construction of mental representations, perceptual and cognitive integration of information, structuring of driving knowledge, etc.), or executive functions of actions (short control loop by ''envelopes zones'' or pursuit points).Through computer simulation, we used the numerical model as an innovative tool for scientific investigation in the field of cognitive sciences: The numerical simulation of cognitive functions identified and modeled by COSMODRIVE allowed us to define experimental hypotheses which leed us to conduct experiments in a driving simulator that we have built. To test the theoretical model and computer of the car driver, we compared the performance of human drivers on one hand and the predictions issued from the simulation on the other hand. It opens innovative opportunities for the development and the use of cognitive modeling and simulation of car driver.

When judging interpersonal aggression, witnesses are usually expected to rationally consider, based on the evidence they have, what another reasonable person could (or should) have thought, known and done. However their analysis may be affected by judgment biases and personal motivations. These evaluative and retrospective biases, as well as the ascription of blame, are the main interests of this research. More specifically, we investigated the consequences of witnesses being prone to the hindsight bias, which is a common bias that gives individuals the feeling that they would have been able to predict past events, what in fact, is not the case. This process may have important effects on the victim, who “should have known” that an aggression would happen to him/her. In this dissertation, we examine the moderators of this bias and the role of the communication context in which it develops. We hypothesized that the communication context might affect the perspective that is taken on the event of interpersonal aggression and the perceived distance towards it. Also, we expected that the hindsight bias and victim blame would be decreased when reducing the psychological distance towards the event (i.e. perceived temporal distance and perceived proximity with the victim’s fate). In a same vein, we expected that the aggressor would be more derogated in this condition. The first four studies were designed to investigate the role of communication goals about the aggression. Asking participants to describe how (vs. why) the aggression happened was expected to diminish the perceived distance. The following study (study 5) examined whether reporting the event in the passive voice (vs. active voice) would have a similar effect. The four last studies investigated how the time of presenting the event (before vs. after its antecedents) would influence the perception of distance towards the events and the judgments. We expected that knowing the outcome initially might reduce the perceived distance with the events. Results of the first five studies confirmed the main hypotheses: the communication context that focused on the “how” of the event or that presented it in the passive voice reduced the perceived distance and diminished the predictability of the aggression and victim derogation. It also increases the derogation of the aggressor. In addition, the latter studies revealed that learning about the outcome right away leads to reduced derogation of the perpetrator and increased derogation of the victim, even when reducing the perceived distance with the event. Overall, this research suggests that the communication context in which the hindsight bias emerges, as well as the perceived distance with the negative event, are important factors when examining the retrospective reasoning and judgments of witnesses.<p><p><p><p><p>Lorsque les témoins jugent une agression interpersonnelle, il est généralement attendu d’eux qu’ils considèrent rationnellement ce qu’une personne raisonnable aurait pu penser, savoir et faire dans pareille situation, et ce en se fondant uniquement sur les preuves qui leur sont fournies. Il n’en reste pas moins que leur analyse sera toutefois tronquée par des biais de jugement et des motivations personnelles. C’est pourquoi la détermination du blâme et l’influence des déformations rétrospectives et évaluatives sont au cœur de cette recherche. Ainsi, nous investiguons plus particulièrement le biais de rétrospection, à savoir l’erreur commune qui laisse à l’individu penser qu’il est en mesure de prévoir n’importe quel événement, alors qu’en réalité, il n’en est rien. Une telle erreur peut cependant avoir de graves conséquences pour la victime dès lors que les témoins sont amenés à croire qu’elle aurait « dû » prévoir ce qui allait survenir. Dans cette thèse, nous envisageons également les modérateurs de ce biais, dont le rôle du contexte communicationnel. Nous avons, dès lors, fait l’hypothèse que le contexte communicationnel pourrait affecter l’angle sous lequel les témoins considèrent l’événement et la distance perçue par rapport à celui-ci. Ce faisant, nous pensions que le biais de rétrospection et le blâme de la victime seraient réduits lorsque le contexte diminuait la distance perçue vis-à-vis de l’événement (en l’occurrence, la distance temporelle et la proximité perçue avec le sort de la victime). De même, il était attendu que l’agresseur soit davantage blâmé dans pareille condition. Les quatre premières études s’intéressaient donc au rôle des buts poursuivis lors de la communication à propos de l’agression, afin d’envisager en quoi décrire comment (vs. pourquoi) l’agression s’était produite aidait à réduire la distance perçue. Une cinquième étude nous a ensuite permis de considérer si la voix passive (versus active) avait aussi un effet similaire. Quant aux quatre dernières études, elles avaient pour objectif d’investiguer dans quelle mesure l’ordre de présentation des informations (connaître la fin avant, vs. après les antécédents) pouvait avoir également une incidence sur la prise de distance par rapport à l’événement et aux jugements. Plus précisément, nous faisions l’hypothèse que connaître l’événement en premier lieu (avant ses antécédents) facilitait la réduction de la distance perçue. Les résultats obtenus dans les cinq premières recherches semblaient confirmer nos hypothèses :Un contexte communicationnel qui réduisait la distance psychologique perçue par rapport à l’événement pouvait non seulement diminuer le biais de rétrospection et le blâme de la victime, mais augmenter aussi le blâme de l’agresseur. Toutefois, les dernières recherches ont semblé démontrer, a contrario, que connaître l’agression en premier lieu pouvait réduire le blâme de l’agresseur et augmenter celui de la victime, alors même que la distance perçue avec les événements était réduite. In fine, ce travail suggère donc que le contexte communicationnel, dans lequel le biais émerge, et la prise de distance face à l’événement négatif sont autant de pistes qu’il faudrait creuser à l’avenir pour mieux comprendre le raisonnement et les jugements rétrospectifs des témoins. / Doctorat en Sciences Psychologiques et de l'éducation / info:eu-repo/semantics/nonPublished