Small interfering RNAs (siRNAs), microRNAs (miRNAs), and piRNAs (piRNA) are conserved classes of small single-stranded ~21-30 nucleotide (nt) RNA guides that repress eukaryotic gene expression using distinct RNA Induced Silencing Complexes (RISCs). At its core, RISC is composed of a single-stranded small RNA guide bound to a member of the Argonaute protein family, which together bind and repress complementary target RNA. miRNAs target protein coding mRNAs—a function essential for normal development and broadly involved in pathways of human disease; small interfering RNAs (siRNA) defend against viruses, but can also be engineered to direct experimental or therapeutic gene silencing; piwi associated RNAs (piRNAs) protect germline genomes from expansion of parasitic nucleic acids such as transposons. Using the fruit fly, Drosophila melanogaster, as a model organism we seek to understand how small silencing RNAs are made and how they function. In Drosophila, miRNAs and siRNAs are proposed to have parallel, but separate biogenesis and effector machinery. miRNA duplexes are excised from imperfectly paired hairpin precursors by Dicer1 and loaded into Ago1; siRNA duplexes are hewn from perfectly paired long dsRNA by Dicer2 and loaded into Ago2. Contrary to this model we found one miRNA, miR-277, is made by Dicer1, but partitions between Ago1 and Ago2 RISCs. These two RISCs are functionally distinct—Ago2 could silence a perfectly paired target, but not a centrally bulged target; Ago1 could silence a bulged target, but not a perfect target. This was surprising since both Ago1 and Ago2 have endonucleolytic cleavage activity necessary for perfect target cleavage in vitro. Our detailed kinetic studies suggested why—Ago2 is a robust multiple turnover enzyme, but Ago1 is not. Along with a complementary in vitro study our data supports a duplex sorting mechanism in which Diced duplexes are released, and rebind to Ago1 or Ago2 loading machinery, regardless of which Dicer produced them. This allows structural information embedded in small RNA duplexes to direct small RNA loading into Ago1 and/or Ago2, resulting in distinct regulatory outputs. Small RNA sorting also has chemical consequences for the small RNA guide. Although siRNAs were presumed to have the signature 2′, 3′ hydroxyl ends left by Dicer, we found that small RNAs loaded into Ago2 or Piwi proteins, but not Ago1, are modified at their 3´ ends by the RNA 2´-O-methyltransferase DmHen1. In plants Hen1 modifies the 3´ ends all small RNAs duplexs, protecting and stabilizing them. Implying a similar function in flies, piRNAs are smaller, less abundant, and their function is perturbed in hen1 mutants. But unlike plants, small RNAs are modified as single-strands in RISC rather than as duplexes. This nicely explains why the dsRNA binding domain in plant Hen1 was discarded in animals, and why both dsRNA derived siRNAs and ssRNA derived piRNAs are modified. The recent discovery that both piRNAs and siRNAs target transposons links terminal modification and transposon silencing, suggesting that it is specialized for this purpose.

Le travail présenté dans cet ouvrage porte sur la synthèse diastéréosélective d’analogues de nucléosides et leurs usages thérapeutiques. L’intérêt pour cette classe de molécules comme agents anti-cancer et/ou antiviraux réside dans l’existence d’acides nucléiques (sous la forme d’ADN ou d’ARN) nécessaires à la reproduction des cellules cancéreuses et la réplication virale. Plusieurs cofacteurs enzymatiques importants possèdent également une structure nucléosidique et occupent des rôles clés dans les processus cellulaires. La première partie concerne le développement d’une sonde chimique pour l’inhibition de protéines méthyltransférases (PMTs). Cette famille d’enzymes assure la méthylation de protéines, soit une modification post-traductionnelle qui a été associée récemment à certaines maladies incluant le cancer. Sur la base de la structure du cofacteur naturel S-adénosyl-L-méthionine (SAM) et d’inhibiteurs émergents, de nouveaux nucléosides fluorés ont été conçus et synthétisés pour potentiellement améliorer l’activité inhibitrice vis-à-vis certaines de ces enzymes. En collaboration avec le SGC de Toronto, les analogues de nucléosides ont été testés biologiquement et certains ont présenté une activité intéressante contre la lysine méthyltransférase SETDB1. La seconde partie, quant à elle, porte sur la synthèse d’une nouvelle famille d’analogues de nucléosides C2'-fluorés comportant un centre quaternaire fonctionnalisé en position C3'. Différentes bases azotées ont été introduites diastéréosélectivement et, plus de vingt analogues de nucléosides et pronucléotides ont été préparés. Une collaboration avec le laboratoire de la Pre Mona Nemer à l’Université d’Ottawa a permis de les tester in vitro sur des lignées cellulaires cancéreuses du pancréas, où certains montrent une activité biologique intéressante. / The work presented in this manuscript describes the diastereoselective synthesis of nucleoside analogues and their therapeutic uses. The interest in this important class of molecules as anticancer and/or antiviral agents stems from the administration of modified nucleosides that interfere with cell division and viral replication through incorporation into DNA and RNA and/or inhibition of essential enzymes. These analogues thus compete with their natural counterparts to inhibit the synthesis of nucleotides which is the limiting process in cell proliferation. The first objective of this thesis is the development of a chemical probe with inhibitory properties against protein methyltransferases (PMTs). This enzyme family is responsible for protein methylation, a post-translational modification recently linked to cancer and other diseases. Based on the structure of the natural cofactor, S-adenosyl-L-methionine (SAM), novel fluorinated nucleoside analogues were synthesized in an effort to further improve biological activity. In collaboration with the SGC in Toronto, two of these compounds showed interesting activity toward the lysine methyltransferase SETDB1. The second part of this thesis describes the synthesis of a new family of nucleoside analogues bearing a C2' fluorine and a novel all-carbon quaternary center at C3'. Generation of these molecules required optimization of the glycosylation reaction to incorporate various nucleobases as well as modifications to the substituents on the sugar backbone. This resulted in the synthesis of more than twenty analogues including pronucleotides. The biological activity of these molecules was determined in collaboration with Pre Mona Nemer’s laboratory at the University of Ottawa. Such nucleoside analogues have shown interesting activity against pancreatic cancer cell lines.

[ES] La N6-metiladenosina (m6A) es una modificación generalizada en los ARN celulares de diferentes organismos que puede afectar muchos procesos y vías celulares. En las plantas, ocurre mediante un complejo de metilación que contiene varias proteínas: MTA, MTB, FIP37, VIR y HAKAI. Esta modificación es eliminada por desmetilasas de la familia AlkB, mientras que los miembros de la familia ETC son las proteínas mejor descritas que reconocen y procesan los ARN m6A-modificados. Estudios de epitransciptómica viral han revelado un papel igualmente importante de m6A durante la infección por virus; sin embargo, no existe una función pro- o antiviral de m6A generalizada. El laboratorio donde se ha llevado a cabo este trabajo ha sido pionero en el estudio del efecto de m6A en la interacción planta-virus, utilizando como virus modelo el AMV. El AMV pertenece a la familia Bromoviridae, y su genoma está formado por tres (+)ssARN. Los ARN1/2 codifican las subunidades de replicasa (P1 y P2), mientras que el ARN3 codifica la proteína de movimiento (MP) y sirve como molde para la síntesis del sgARN4, que codifica la proteína de cubierta (CP). Al comienzo de esta tesis, nuestro laboratorio ya había informado sobre: la presencia de supuestos motivos m6A en el 3'UTR/RNA3, una región crítica para la replicación de AMV, la primera m6A-desmetilasa de Arabidopsis (ALKBH9B), la relevancia funcional de ALKBH9B para mantener niveles adecuados de m6A/A para la correcta replicación de AMV, la capacidad de la CP de AMV para interactuar con ALKBH9B, posiblemente para usurpar la actividad de ALKBH9B, y la capacidad de las proteínas de Arabidopsis ECT2/3/5 para interactuar con el ARNv de AMV que contienen m6A. Dada la relevancia funcional de m6A en la biología de AMV, en esta tesis se decidió profundizar en el conocimiento de las implicaciones del mecanismo de regulación de m6A en el ciclo infeccioso viral de AMV. Para ello, se decidió: profundizar en la comprensión funcional de la m6A-desmetilasa ALKBH9B, evaluar la función in vivo de los supuestos dos sitios m6A presentes en el 3'UTR/ARN3, y explorar una posible implicación de algunas m6A metiltransferasas en la infección causada por AMV. El mapeo de los subdominios funcionales de atALKBH9B determinó la presencia de IDRs en la región N-terminal, dentro del dominio interno similar a AlkB y en la región C-terminal. Alrededor del 78% del RBD identificado en ALKBH9B está contenido en el IDR C-terminal. Debido a que las IDRs se localizan con frecuencia en proteínas que se someten a LLPS, un proceso que probablemente contribuye a la formación y estabilidad de los gránulos de ARN, es posible que las IDR y la RBD de ALKBH9B puedan actuar de manera cooperativa para promover la formación de gránulos de ARN. El análisis de los putativos motivos DRACH localizados en el bucle de hpB y en el tallo inferior de hpE del 3'UTR/ARN3 de AMV demostró que son sitios críticos involucrados en la replicación in vivo de AMV. La identidad de los residuos 2012A, 2013A y 2014A en el bucle hpB parece ser un requisito estructural clave para la replicación y/o acumulación de AMV. Con respecto a hpE, nuestros resultados determinaron que el supuesto residuo de m6A (1902A), así como el apareamiento de bases del tallo inferior de hpE, también son requisitos esenciales para la síntesis in vivo de ARNs de cadena positiva en AMV. Hasta donde sabemos, esta es la primera evidencia en AMV que muestra que el bucle de hpB y el tallo inferior de hpE están involucrados en la replicación/acumulación viral y la síntesis de ARNs de cadena positiva, respectivamente. Finalmente, en cuanto al estudio de la influencia de las m6A-metiltransferasas en el ciclo de infección viral de AMV, no se determinó un efecto proviral y/o antiviral en el complejo m6A-ARNm metiltransferasa conformado por atMTA:atMTB, ni en el putativo complejo m6A- ARNr metiltransferasa conformado por atMETTL5-like:atTRMT112-like sobre la biología de AMV. / [CA] La N6-metiladenosina (m6A) és una modificació generalitzada en els ARN cellulars de diferents organismes que pot afectar molts processos i vies cellulars. En les plantes, ocorre mitjançant un complex de metilació que conté diverses proteïnes: MTA, MTB, FIP37, VIR i HAKAI. Aquesta modificació és eliminada per desmetilasas de la família AlkB, mentre que els membres de la família ETC són les proteïnes més ben descrites que reconeixen i processen els ARN m6A-modificats. Estudis de epitransciptómica viral han revelat un paper igualment important de m6A durant la infecció per virus; no obstant això, no existeix una funció pro- o antiviral de m6A generalitzada. El laboratori on s'ha dut a terme aquest treball ha sigut pioner en l'estudi de l'efecte de m6A en la interacció planta-virus, utilitzant com a virus model el AMV. El AMV pertany a la família Bromoviridae, i el seu genoma està format per tres (+) ssARN. Els ARN1/2 codifiquen les subunitats de replicasa (P1 i P2), mentre que l'ARN3 codifica la MP i serveix com a motle per a la síntesi del sgARN4, que codifica la CP. Al començament d'aquesta tesi, el nostre laboratori ja havia informat sobre: la presència de suposats motius m6A en el 3'UTR/RNA3, una regió crítica per a la replicació de AMV, la primera m6A-desmetilasa de Arabidopsis (ALKBH9B), la rellevància funcional d'ALKBH9B per a mantindre nivells adequats de m6A/A per a la correcta replicació de AMV, la capacitat de la CP de AMV per a interactuar amb ALKBH9B, possiblement per a usurpar l'activitat d'ALKBH9B, i la capacitat de les proteïnes de Arabidopsis ECT2/3/5 per a interactuar amb el ARNv de AMV que contenen m6A. Donada la rellevància funcional de m6A en la biologia de AMV, en aquesta tesi es va decidir aprofundir en el coneixement de les implicacions del mecanisme de regulació de m6A en el cicle infecciós viral de AMV. Per a això, es va decidir: aprofundir en la comprensió funcional de la m6A-desmetilasa ALKBH9B, avaluar la funció in vivo dels supòsits dos llocs m6A presents en el 3'UTR/ARN3, i explorar una possible implicació d'algunes m6A metiltransferasas en la infecció causada per AMV. El mapatge dels subdominis funcionals de atALKBH9B va determinar la presència de IDRs a la regió N-terminal, dins del domini intern similar a AlkB i a la regió C-terminal. Al voltant del 78% del RBD identificat en ALKBH9B està contingut en el IDR C-terminal. Pel fet que les IDRs es localitzen amb freqüència en proteïnes que se sotmeten a LLPS, un procés que probablement contribueix a la formació i estabilitat dels grànuls d'ARN, és possible que les IDR i la RBD d'ALKBH9B puguen actuar de manera cooperativa per a promoure la formació de grànuls d'ARN. L'anàlisi dels putatius motius DRACH localitzats en el bucle de hpB i en la tija inferior de hpE del 3'UTR/ARN3 de AMV va demostrar que són llocs crítics involucrats en la replicació in vivo de AMV. La identitat dels residus 2012A, 2013A i 2014A en el bucle hpB sembla ser un requisit estructural clau per a la replicació i/o acumulació de AMV. Respecte a hpE, els nostres resultats van determinar que el suposat residu de m6A (1902A), així com l'aparellament de bases de la tija inferior de hpE, també són requisits essencials per a la síntesi in vivo de ARNs de cadena positiva en AMV. Fins on sabem, aquesta és la primera evidència en AMV que mostra que el bucle de hpB i la tija inferior de hpE estan involucrats en la replicació/acumulació viral i la síntesi de ARNs de cadena positiva, respectivament. Finalment, quant a l'estudi de la influència de les m6A-metiltransferasas en el cicle d'infecció viral de AMV, no es va determinar un efecte proviral i/o antiviral en el complex m6A-ARNm metiltransferasa conformat per atMTA:atMTB, ni en el putatiu complex m6A-ARNr metiltransferasa conformat per atMETTL5-like:atTRMT112-like sobre la biologia de AMV. / [EN] N6-methyladenosine (m6A) is a widespread modification on cellular RNAs of different organisms that can impact many cellular processes and pathways. In plants, m6A-methylation is mainly installed by a methylation complex containing several proteins: MTA, MTB, FIP37, VIR, and HAKAI. This modification is removed by demethylases of the AlkB family, and members of the ECT family are the best described proteins that recognize and process m6A-modified RNAs. Studies of viral epitransciptomics have revealed an equally important role of m6A during virus infection; however, there is no global pro- or antiviral role of m6A that can be generalized. The laboratory where this work was carried out has been a pioneer in the study of the effect of m6A on plant-viruses, using AMV as a model-virus. AMV belongs to the Bromoviridae family and, as the rest of the members of this family, its genome consists of three (+)ssRNAs. RNA1 and RNA2 encode the replicase subunits (P1 and P2), whereas RNA 3 encodes the MP and serves as a template for the synthesis of sgRNA 4, which encodes CP. At the beginning of this thesis, our laboratory had already reported on: the presence of putative m6A-motifs in the 3'UTR RNA3, a critical region for AMV replication, the first Arabidopsis m6A-demethylase (ALKBH9B), the functional relevance of ALKBH9B to maintain adequate m6A/A levels for correct AMV replication, the ability of AMV-CP to interact with ALKBH9B, possibly to usurp ALKBH9B activity, and the capability of Arabidopsis ECT2/3/5 to interact with m6A-containing AMV vRNAs. Given the functional relevance of m6A on the biology of AMV, in this thesis it was decided to deepen the knowledge of the implications of the m6A regulation mechanism on the viral infectious cycle of AMV. For this, it was decided: deepen the functional understanding of the m6A-demethylase ALKBH9B, evaluate the in vivo function of the putative two m6A-sites present in the 3'UTR-RNA 3, and explore a possible involvement of some m6A-methyltransferases in infection caused by AMV. We mapped functional subdomains in the atALKBH9B m6A-demethylase required for its binding to the vRNA and to the CP of AMV. Remarkably, it was observed the presence of IDRs in the N-terminal region, within the internal domain like AlkB and in the C-terminal region. About 78% of the RBD identified in ALKBH9B is contained in the C-terminal IDR. In this context, it has been proposed that the capability to specifically target different RNAs in RBPs containing IDRs is due to conformational flexibility as well as the establishment of extended conserved electrostatic interfaces with RNAs. Additionally, due that IDRs are frequently localized in proteins that undergo LLPS, a process that likely contributes to the formation and stability of RNA granules, it's possible that the IDRs and the RBD of ALKBH9B could act cooperatively to promote RNA granule formation. The analysis of the putative DRACH-motifs located in the hpB loop and the lower-stem of hpE in the 3'UTR RNA 3 present hot sites involved in AMV replication in vivo. The identity of residues 2012A, 2013A and 2014A in the hpB loop appears to be a key structural requirement for AMV replication and/or accumulation. Regarding hpE, our results determined that the putative m6A-residue 1902A, as well as the base pairing of the lower-stem of hpE, are also essential requirements for the in vivo plus-strand synthesis in AMV. To our knowledge, this is the first evidence in AMV to show that the hpB loop and the lower-stem of hpE are involved in viral replication/accumulation and plus-strand synthesis, respectively. Finally, regarding the study of the influence of m6A-methyltransferases on the viral infection cycle of AMV, a non-proviral and/or antiviral effect was determined in the m6A-mRNA methyltransferase complex made up of atMTA:atMTB, nor of the putative m6A-rRNA methyltransferase complex made up of atMETTL5-like:atTRMT112-like on the biology of AMV. / Alvarado Marchena, LF. (2022). Insights into the Molecular Mechanisms of the N6-Methyladenosine (m6A) Methylation Machinery in the Regulation of the Infection Cycle of RNA Plant Viruses [Tesis doctoral]. Universitat Politècnica de València. https://doi.org/10.4995/Thesis/10251/185122

Die Verknüpfung einer exergonischen mit einer endergonischen Reaktion zur Ermöglichung der letzteren ist eine in biologischen Systemen weit verbreitete Strategie. Energetisch benachteiligte Elektronenübertragungsreaktionen im Rahmen der reduktiven Aktivierung von Nitrogenasen, Radikal-abhängigen β,α-Dehydratasen, der zu diesen verwandten Benzoyl-CoA-Reduktasen und diversen Cobalamin-abhängigen Methyltransferasen sind gekoppelt an die Hydrolyse von ATP. Der Methylgruppentransfer des reduktiven Acetyl-CoA-Weges von Carboxydothermus hydrogenoformans erfordert den Co(I)-Zustand des Corrinoid/Eisen-Schwefel Proteins (CoFeSP). Um diese superreduzierte Form nach einer oxidativen Inaktivierung zu regenerieren ist ein „Reparaturmechanismus“ erforderlich. Ein offenes Leseraster (orf7), welches möglicherweise für eine reduktive Aktivase von Corrinoid Enzymen (RACE) kodiert, wurde in dem Gencluster der am reduktiven Acetyl-CoA-Weg beteiligten Proteine entdeckt. Im Rahmen dieser Arbeit wurde dieses potenzielle RACE Protein biochemisch und strukturell charakterisiert und die ATP-abhängige reduktive Aktivierung von CoFeSP untersucht. Auf Grundlage der in dieser Arbeit gewonnenen Ergebnisse wurde ein Mechanismus für die ATP-abhängige Aktivierung entworfen. Dieser gibt Einblicke wie die durch ATP-Hydrolyse bereitgestellte Energie einen energetisch ungünstigen Elektronentransfer ermöglichen kann. Hierzu kombiniert RACo das Ausgleichen von Bindungsenergien mit Modulationen am Elektronenakzeptor. Eine vergleichbare Strategie wurde bisher in keinem anderen ATP-abhängigen Elektronenübertragungssystem wie dem von Nitrogenasen, Radikal-abhängigen β,α-Dehydratasen oder Benzoyl-CoA-Reduktasen beobachtet und könnte ein für RACE Proteine allgemein gültige Eigenschaft darstellen. / The principle of coupling an exergonic to an endergonic reaction to enable the latter is a widespread strategy in biological systems. Unfavoured electron transfer reactions in the reductive activation of nitrogenases, radical-dependent β,α-dehydratases and the related benzoyl- CoA reductases, as well as different cobalamin-dependent methyltransferases are coupled to the hydrolysis of ATP. The reductive acetyl-CoA pathway of Carboxydothermus hydrogenoformans relies on the superreduced Co(I)-state of the corrinoid/iron-sulfur protein (CoFeSP) that requires a “repair mechanism” in case of incidental oxidation. An open reading frame (orf7) coding for a putative reductive activase of corrinoid enzymes (RACE) was discovered in the gene cluster of proteins involved in the reductive acetyl-CoA pathway. In this work, this putative RACE protein was biochemically and structurally characterised and the ATP-dependent reductive activation of CoFeSP was investigated. Based on the results of this study, a mechanism for the ATP-dependent reactivation of CoFeSP was deduced providing insights into how the energy provided by ATP could trigger this unfavourable electron transfer. The reductive activator of CoFeSP combines balance of binding energies and modulations of the electron acceptor to promote the uphill electron transfer to CoFeSP. A comparable strategy has not been observed in other ATP-dependent electron transfer systems like nitrogenases, radical-dependent β,α-dehydratases and benzoyl- CoA reductases and could be a universal feature of RACE proteins.