This thesis aimed to develop a measure to investigate the perceived motivational climate in individual sports. In particular, it aimed to address some of the knowledge gaps in the current literature examining motivational climates: by developing a measure whose intended population participate in individual sports; that incorporates the perceived motivational climate created by multiple significant others; and that incorporates the 'impact' or salience of each of these perceptions of the motivational climate. In order to achieve this, the thesis is comprised of four studies.

Background - Equity-based crowdfunding is rapidly emerging as a source of funding, as a way for ventures to overcome financial obstacles. It is based on a large number of investors, the crowd, who contributes with smaller investments that together helps fund the venture, where the investor in return receives equity in the venture. In order for the entrepreneur to successfully fund their ventures, it is important to understand what motivates the investors to invest. Problem: The theoretical framework Motivation in Equity-Based Crowdfunding has been developed to understand what drives the investors. However, this framework has mainly been developed on crowdsourcing and general crowdfunding, which is significantly different from equity crowdfunding. Therefore, further research has been suggested by other authors on the topic, to specifically investigate investor motivation in equity crowdfunding. Furthermore, existing research has only studied investors as one group of people and not divided them into smaller segments. Purpose: The aim of this descriptive study is to understand what motivational factors drives investors to invest in equity-based crowdfunding, and how the motivations to invest is different between the demographic characteristics within age, gender, location, income and investor experience. Method: With a deductive research approach, four hypotheses were developed based on the literature review. Using the framework Motivation in Equity-Based Crowdfunding as a basis for the research, the investor motivation was studied on 142 equity crowdfunding investors using a quantitative online survey. The results were then analyzed using frequency analysis, descriptive statistics, t-statistics and multiple regression analysis. Conclusion: Based on the findings, a revision of the framework Motivation in Equity-Based Crowdfunding have been suggested. Furthermore, it was found that investors were primarily driven by enjoyment, philanthropic and financial payoffs in their decision to invest. There were also significant differences found in investor motivation between the demographics age, gender and investor experience, whilst the location or income of the investor did not have any effect on investor motivation. Contribution: By understanding what investors are motivated by, the entrepreneurs can promote these factors in their crowdfunding campaign, which may increase their chances of getting successfully funded. Furthermore, if the entrepreneur wants to bring in a certain type of investor, they can adjust their promotion after the factors that motivates a certain demographic characteristic.

Bakgrund: Ohälsosamma matvanor är ett stort problem och är det som idag orsakar flest sjukdomar i Sverige. Kosten har en stor inverkan på insjuknande i olika sjukdomar och en god hälsofrämjande omvårdnad är därför av stor vikt för en friskare befolkning. Inom hälsofrämjande omvårdnad används Motiverande Samtal (MI) som en metod för att öka motivationen till en förändring. Syfte: Var att beskriva patientens erfarenheter och förändring efter en MI baserad kostrådgivning utförd av sjuksköterskan. Metod: Allmän litteraturstudie med innehållsanalys. Resultat: Litteraturstudien baserades på nio vetenskapliga artiklar som resulterade i tre huvudkategorier med respektive subkategorier. Resultatet visade att MI rådgivning kan hjälpa människor att förändra sin kost med hjälp av motivation och stöd från sjuksköterskan, men även hinder mot genomförandet av en förändring inom kosthållning identifierades. Resultatet tog också upp den fysiska och kognitiva förändringen som inträffade efter MI – samtalet med sjuksköterskan. Konklusion: För att genomföra en förändring krävs motivation. Motivationen kan påverkas positivt eller negativt beroendes på olika aspekter så som sjuksköterskans genomförande av samtalet och den egna viljan att förändras. Resultatet indikerade på att patientens förändring påverkas av kvalitén på det motiverande samtalet. / Background: Unhealthy eating habits are a major problem that causes most diseases in Sweden today. Diet has a major impact on becoming ill and good healthcare is of high importance for av healthier population. Within healthcare Motivational Interviewing is used as a method to increase motivation to make a change. Aim: To describe the patient's experience and change following a MI-based dietary counseling performed by the nurse. Method: General literature study with content analysis. Result: The literature study is based on nine scientific articles that resulted in three main categories with respective subcategories. The result showed that MI counseling can help people change their diet with the help of motivation and support from the nurse, but it also showed barriers to the implementation of a change in diet. The result also took on the physical and cognitive changes that occurred after the MI interview with the nurse. Conclusion: To make a change, motivation is required. Motivation can be positively or negatively affected by various aspects such as the caregiver's implementation of the conversation and the patients own will to change. The result indicated that the patient's change is affected by the quality of the motivational interview.

Bakgrund: Inom primärvården möter läkare och distriktssköterskor dagligen patienter som söker hjälp för symtom som är direkt relaterade till rökning. Att arbeta sjukdomsförebyggande genom livsstilsförändringar är en viktig del av distriktssköterskans ansvarsområde. Enligt Socialstyrelsens (2011) nationella riktlinjer finns tydliga rekommendationer för hur distriktssköterskor ska gå till väga med patienter som söker hjälp för att sluta röka. Syfte: Syftet var att belysa distriktssköterskans erfarenheter av arbetet med rökavvänjning för patienter samt vilka arbetsmetoder de använder för detta. Metod: En kvalitativ metod användes och 14 semistrukturerade intervjuer utfördes med distriktssköterskor som arbetar med rökavvänjning inom primärvård i ett län i södra Sverige. Vid dataanalysen användes manifest kvalitativ innehållsanalys. Resultat: Analysen av data resulterade i två kategorier: Distriktsköterskans tillvägagångssätt och Faktorer som påverkar rökavvänjning med fem underkategorier under vardera kategori. Resultatet i studien visar att distriktssköterskornas arbetsmetoder vid rökavvänjning består av Motiverande samtal MI (Motivational Interviewing) och kvalificerade rådgivande samtal med patienter. Distriktssköterskornas erfarenhet är att dessa två arbetsmetoder är de mest effektiva att använda för att kunna finna ut hur beslutsam samt hur motiverad patient är till rökstopp och hur de tillsammans kan planera vägen dit. Distriktssköterskornas erfarenhet av rökavvänjningsarbetet är att det ger positiv energi när patienten lyckas bli rökfri.  Det ger också ny energi till att fortsätta med motivationsarbetet. En generell svaghet som konstaterats är bristerna i uppföljning av om patienternas rökfrihet varit varaktig efter avslutad behandling. Slutsats:  Motiverande samtal i kombination med nikotinersättningsmedel beskrevs av distriktssköterskorna som betydelsefullt i strävan efter att stödja patienter till rökfrihet. Stöd av kollegor i form av nätverksträffar, utbildning inom samtalsmetod samt arbetslivserfarenhet var viktiga delar för distriktssköterskorna och underlättade för dem i arbete med att försöka stödja patienter till varaktig rökfrihet. / Background: In primary care physicians and district nurses faces on a daily basis patients seeking help for symptoms that are directly related to smoking. Working disease prevention through lifestyle changes is an important part of the district nurse's responsibility. According to the National Board of Health (2011) National guidelines there are clear recommendations for district nurses to proceed with patients seeking help to quit smoking. Objective: The objective was to highlight the district nurse practice and experience of working with smoking cessation for patients in primary care. Method: A qualitative method was used, and 14 semi-structured interviews were conducted with district nurses in Southern Sweden. The data was analyzed according to the method manifest qualitative content analysis. Results: The analysis of the data resulted in two categories: The primary nurse approaches and factors affecting smoking cessationwith five sub-categories in each category. The results of the study show that the district nurses working methods consists of Motivational Interviewing, MI and qualified advisory conversations with patients and smoking cessation. District nurses common experience that these two methods are the two most effective to use to find out how determined and how motivated the patient is to quit smoking and how they together can plan the way to quit smoking. District nurses experience from smoking cessation is that it gives them positive feedback when they manage to get the patient non-smoking and it gives positive energy to continue with the motivational work. An identified general weakness are shortcomings in monitoring whether patients' abstinence has been sustained after the treatment is finished.  Conclusion: Motivational interviewing and nicotine replacement medicine was described by the district nurses as important in the quest for supporting patients to quit smoking. Support of colleagues, training in communication technique in the form of network meetings and work were important parts of the districts nurses and facilitating them in their work is often very difficult and important task to try to support patients to smoke.

With the increasing emergence of multinational companies and the increased popularity of these companies, the question of the organization of their activities becomes interesting for the HR community worldwide. These companies are renowned for deliberate management structure of human resources and their effective use. For effective use of employees’ skills and knowledge the company has to constantly motivate them by intrinsic and extrinsic motivational tools. Motivational tools which use a company may be different depending on specific features of the country that the office is located. The purpose of this research is the study of how multinational companies organize the motivational system in different countries taking into account cultural characteristics and needs of the personnel in the offices of a particular country. On the basis of data derived from interviews with 12 representatives of 6 companies (4 of them Swedish companies, Oriflame, SCA, Volvo, IKEA, and two American companies, IBM and Deloitte, that have representative offices in Sweden and in Russia) it was revealed that modern multinational companies use similar motivational tools that partly standardized to keep the specifics of the company, and partly adapted to the local requirements.

Syftet med studien var att undersöka klienternas och socialarbetarnas upplevelse av metoden motiverande samtal (motivational interviewing, MI), vilket besvaras genom frågeställningarna; hur upplever klienten kontakten med socialarbetaren som använder MI och vad är socialarbetarens upplevelse av MI metoden. Studien är genomförd med en triangulerande kvalitativ metod där studiens syfte blir belyst från tre olika perspektiv. Empirin baseras därför på två stycken intervjuer med klienter, två stycken intervjuer med socialarbetare och två stycken inspelade verkliga MI-sessioner mellan klient och handläggare. Som teoretisk referensram har resultatet analyserats utifrån begreppet empowerment. Resultatet visar att relationen mellan socialarbetare och klient är en avgörande faktor för att kunna bryta ett destruktivt beteende. Att formulera delmål på vägen mot ett större mål anser samtliga informanter vara av stor vikt i förändringsarbetet. Klienten har ett egenansvar om att förändra sin livssituation, där den ena klienten ställer sig negativ till eget ansvar. Båda klienterna berättar att, när de befunnit sig i ett aktivt missbruk har kontakten med socialtjänsten endast handlat om att få pengar eller utnyttja systemet på något sätt. I denna fas finns inte någon motivation att förändras, vilket leder till svårigheter. Resultatet visar att klienterna har upplevt sin handläggare som stöttande och en trygghet i processen att bli fri från sitt missbruk. / The aim of the study was to investigate the clients 'and the social workers' experience of the method of motivational interviewing, which is answered by the questions; how do clients experience the contact with social workers who use MI as a method and what is the social worker's experience of MI as a method. The study was conducted with a triangulation qualitative method where the purpose of the study was illuminated from three different perspectives. The empirical data is therefore based on two interviews with clients, two interviews with social workers and two MI-recorded real-sections between the client and the social worker. As a theoretical framework, the result has been analyzed based on the concept of empowerment. The result shows that the relationship between social worker and client is an essential factor to break destructive behavior. All of the informants believes that formulating partial goals is an important part in the changing process. The client has a personal responsibility to change their situation, one client is negative to that responsibility. Both of the clients report that, when in an active addiction, the contact with the social services only were about gain money or use the system. In this phase there is no motivation to change, which leads to difficulties. The results show that clients have experienced their administrators as supportive and secure in the process of becoming free from their addiction.

Purpose: To assess a caregiver’s oral health attitudes, habits, and behaviors pre and post intervention, and to determine whether a particular delivery-style (verbal-only or with visual supplementation) of a motivational interviewing session is more effective in improving oral health behaviors as well as improving success of a chosen preventive goal. Methods: N=140 caregivers of pediatric dental patients were given questionnaires to assess readiness to change and current preventive oral health behaviors. Oral health education was communicated in a MI style (verbal-only or with visual supplementation). One preventive oral health goal was selected to focus on. The home preventive behavior survey was re-administered at follow-up. Results: Preventive home behaviors improved, with no significant difference between interventions. There was significance in the amount of change in items specified as a goal. Conclusions: Behaviors improved significantly after a MI educational intervention. Goal setting and providing oral health education in a MI style can improve home preventive behaviors.

Purpose: The purpose of this study is to examine infant oral health knowledge and readiness of expectant mothers to incorporate preventive oral health behaviors for their infants. Methods: The study used a prospective cohort design to examine the effect of prenatal education and motivational counseling with expectant mothers about infant oral health care readiness. Participants were all enrolled in a prenatal care program called Centering Pregnancy offered by VCU’s Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology. They all completed a pre-survey questionnaire, followed by a motivational counseling intervention, and then completed a post-survey questionnaire. Results: A sample of 30 pregnant women completed the pre- and post-survey. The participants were predominantly white (60%) who had finished college (67%) with an average age of 28.8 years. Based on the analysis of the readiness (RAPIDD scale) responses, the participants showed an improvement in their value for dental health with a p-value illustrating a significant overall change between the pre and post surveys (p < .02). The results for the knowledge portion of the survey demonstrated an increase in their infant oral health education, showing a significant change across time (p < .0001). The results to the last portion of the pre and post survey illustrated that the participants learned at what age to establish a dental home for their infant. Conclusion: This study has shown that with the proper educational tools parents are able to accept and improve their knowledge related to infant oral health and the prevention of early childhood caries.

THE EFFECTS OF MOTIVATIONAL INTERVIEWING IN PREGNANCY ON KNOWLEDGE AND RETENTION OF INFANT ORAL HEALTH INFORMATION By Andrew D. Zima, Jr., B.S., M.S., D.D.S. A thesis submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Masters of Science in Dentistry at Virginia Commonwealth University. Virginia Commonwealth University, 2010 Major Director: Tegwyn H. Brickhouse, D.D.S., Ph.D Associate Professor, Department of Pediatric Dentistry Purpose: The purpose was to examine the effect of motivational counseling in pregnancy with readiness and acceptance of infant oral health information. Methods: The study used a prospective cohort design to examine the effect of prenatal education and motivational counseling with expectant mothers about infant oral health care readiness. Participants were all enrolled in a prenatal care program called Centering Pregnancy offered by VCU’s Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology. They all completed a pre-survey questionnaire, followed by a motivational counseling intervention, and then completed a post-survey questionnaire. A third survey was sent out 1 year post-partum. The participants were evaluated for their willingness to accept v vi information, their knowledge about infant oral health, and the retention and implementation of infant oral health information. Results: A sample of 87 pregnant women completed the pre- and post-survey and 11 of these participants completed and mailed back the 1 year post-partum survey. Based on the analysis of the readiness (RAPIDD scale) responses, the participants showed statistically significant overall improvements in their pre versus post survey openness to health information (p < .0039) and value for dental health (p < .001). The results for the knowledge portion of the survey demonstrated an increase in their infant oral health education, showing a significant change across time (p < .0001) from the pre survey to both the post and 1 year post partum surveys. The results to the last portion of the pre, post, and 1 year survey illustrated that the participants learned at what age to establish a dental home for their infant. Conclusion: This study has shown that with the proper educational tools parents are able to accept and improve their knowledge related to infant oral health and the prevention of early childhood caries. Data suggests that parents are implementing routine home infant oral health measures, but fewer have established a dental home by age 1.

Adolescent obesity has increased exponentially over the past three decades in the United States. In response, behavioral interventions have been developed and implemented to address this epidemic; however, treatment adherence is often suboptimal. Motivational interviewing (MI) is a directive, person centered approach to reducing patient ambivalence about change, which has been shown to increase engagement in obesity interventions. The current study investigated the underlying process of MI by exploring two different, but related pathways that explain how change happens (e.g., the technical and relational hypotheses) in the context of a multidisciplinary obesity intervention with African American adolescent girls (N = 30). Results demonstrated that MI-consistent skills were associated with client “change talk,” or language consistent with their desire, ability, reasons, need, taking steps or commitment to change. Specifically, clinician reflection of client change language and support of client autonomy were especially important for increasing change language. Furthermore, client language related to change was associated with three-month treatment adherence, and increased fruit and vegetable intake. However, the clinician’s ability to embody the MI “spirit” was not related to either client language or three-month treatment adherence. Findings suggest that the technical aspect of MI helps explain this approach's effects on treatment adherence among African American girls with obesity.