Student musicians were recruited to participate in an experimental repeated measures research design study to identify effects of heart rate variability (HRV) biofeedback training and emotional self-regulation techniques, as recommended by HeartMath® Institute, on music performance anxiety (MPA) and music performance. Fourteen students were randomly assigned to a treatment or control group following a 5 minute unaccompanied baseline performance. Treatment group participants received 4-5 HRV training sessions of 30-50 minutes each. Training included bibliotherapy, using the computerized Freeze-Framer® 2.0 interactive training software, instruction in the Freeze-Frame® and Quick Coherence® techniques of emotional regulation, and also use of an emWave® portable heart rate variability training device for home training. Measures included the State-Trait Anxiety Inventory (STAI), Performance Anxiety Inventory (PAI), Flow State Scale (FSS), average heart rate (HR), and heart rate variability (HRV). Quade's rank transformed ANCOVA was used to evaluate treatment and no-treatment group comparisons. Combined MPA scores showed statistical significance at p=.05 level with large effect size of eta2=.320. Individual measurements of trait anxiety showed a small effect size of eta2=.001. State anxiety measurement showed statistical significance at the p=.10 level with a large effect size eta2=.291. FSS showed no statistical or effect size difference. PAI showed no statistical significance and a large effect size eta2=.149. HR showed no statistical significance and a large effect size eta2=.143. HRV showed statistical significance at p=.000 level and a large effect size eta2=.698. This study demonstrated practical/clinical significance of a relatively quick and inexpensive biofeedback training that had large effect at decreasing mental, emotional, and physiological symptoms of MPA for university students.

Music performance anxiety (MPA) is primarily described as stage fright concerning musicians and performers and affects orchestral and professional musicians severely (Brugués, 2009; Plummer, 2007). As a result, literature on MPA focuses extensively on how it affects professional and adolescent musicians, but limited resources emphasise how it affects brass instrumentalists. The aim of the study is to investigate the occurrence and experience of MPA in brass players. Further, it aims to explore prominent symptoms in this population and what coping strategies are most effective against MPA. Ten brass (five French horn, three trumpet and two trombone) players, of whom eight are professional and two semi-professional musicians, with varying performance experience, participated in this study. The study uses a qualitative research approach and falls into the interpretive paradigm. A multiple case study design was followed. The data were collected through semi-structured interviews, probing each participant’s reported experiences and coping strategies. MPA inhibits a brass player’s musical performance in areas such as musical expression, technical proficiency, physical endurance, tone quality and enjoyment. The results suggest that most of the participants experienced MPA since childhood, regardless of the starting age, and experiences of this condition varied over time throughout adulthood. The symptoms of MPA manifests physiologically (shaking, dry mouth, increased heart rate, sweating), behaviourally (muscle tension, shaking, dry lips), and cognitively (negative thought processes). First-time experiences of a musically demanding task such exams and Eisteddfods, with intimidating audiences, impacted early signs of severe MPA symptoms such as shaking and had a blunting effect on performance quality. Increased task difficulty, limited performance opportunities, auditions, recitals, and orchestral environments, which exposed the player’s performing ability under pressure, had a profound influence on recent experiences of MPA. These situations evoked multiple symptoms such as dry mouth, accelerated heartbeat, shortness of breath, negative thoughts/feelings and self-doubt. Symptoms such as a dry mouth, accelerated heartbeat, shortness of breath, and shaking affects a brass player’s musical performance severely, since it inhibits tone quality and influences musical spontaneity. Therefore, these symptoms affect technical proficiency among brass players negatively since performing these instruments are physically demanding. The results also showed that teachers gave useful advice concerning performing a brass instrument under pressure. The advice was useful among the participants’ lived experiences of MPA, particularly regarding early-experienced symptoms. The experiences of MPA in high demanding performance settings resulted in a better understanding of the situation over time, and led to the reported coping strategies against MPA, which enhanced optimal performance and reduced symptoms. The study concludes that MPA adversely affects brass instrumentalists, particularly the physiological manifestation of the condition. More research is needed to identify symptoms unique to this instrument group and the most effective coping strategies. / Mini Dissertation (MMus)--University of Pretoria, 2016. / Music / MMus / Unrestricted

The purpose of this document is to investigate how trumpet students at the University of North Texas experience music performance anxiety and to find out how professors prepare students for controlling music performance anxiety experiences. The interviewees were ten undergraduates and ten graduate students, as well as three trumpet professors who teach at the University of North Texas. The questionnaire responses of the student interviewees were examined, and literature is provided that address the most common performance related psychological and physiological symptoms experienced by the trumpet students. Effective and healthy strategies are discussed that were offered by the trumpet professors, and suggestions are made regarding potential benefits and detriments of trumpet performance anxiety.

Public performance is often a central component of music education for young musicians, and the demands of performing in festivals, exams, auditions, and recitals can cause young performers to experience music performance anxiety (MPA: Boucher & Ryan, 2011; Thomas & Nettelbeck, 2014). The current dissertation explored MPA in young musicians from a variety of perspectives, using four main research purposes. The first article examined the relationship between MPA and self-efficacy in young musicians and investigated the extent to which gender moderates the relationships between MPA, age, and self-efficacy in young musicians (aged 7-17 years). The results of statistical analyses indicated that while gender did not moderate the relationship between age and MPA, age had a significant main effect on MPA. There was no significant difference between males’ and females’ levels of self-reported MPA. Additionally, there were no significant main effects of age or gender on self-efficacy, or an effect of gender on the relationship between age and self-efficacy. A strong negative relationship between self-efficacy and MPA indicates that students with low levels of self-efficacy are more likely to have high levels of MPA. Next, the MPA/self-efficacy and MPA/age-related findings from article one led to the second and third articles of this dissertation which investigated a self-modeling intervention designed to target MPA and self-efficacy in adolescent musicians. Article two examined the relational changes between MPA, self-efficacy, performance quality, and behavioural anxiety in five adolescent piano students over a six-week intervention. The study also explored the effects of a positive self-review self-modeling intervention on adolescent musicians using quantitative methods. Results indicated that the relational changes between MPA, self-efficacy, and performance quality are complex. There were no observed relationships between MPA and self-efficacy or performance, suggesting that MPA can have both debilitative and facilitate effects on these variables. Additionally, there was no relationship between MPA and behavioural anxiety, suggesting that students may appear less anxious than they feel. Finally, the results suggest that self-modeling has individual effects on musicians, meaning that self-modeling can provide teachers with a versatile strategy for reducing MPA, improving performance quality, and/or increasing performance confidence. Article three expanded on the self-efficacy results of article two and investigated how Bandura’s (1977) four sources of efficacy influenced self-efficacy beliefs in adolescent musicians within a six-week self-modeling intervention. The study also explored the effects of a positive self-review self-modeling intervention on musician self-efficacy using qualitative methods. Results indicated that mastery experience was most influential on self-efficacy beliefs in participants. Observing similarly skilled models, receiving positive feedback, and feeling calm or focused prior to performance increased self-efficacy in participants, while observing advanced models, making negative comparisons, and feeling anxious, distracted, or fatigued decreased self-efficacy. These results provide music teachers with several practical strategies that may facilitate stronger self-efficacy beliefs in students. Additionally, the self-modeling video increased self-efficacy when participants liked and related to their video or used the video to facilitate performance improvements, suggesting that both the performance and strategic functions of modeling may be beneficial to musicians. Finally, the fourth and final article of the dissertation explored MPA from music teachers’ perspectives by identifying and describing common coping strategies teachers use to support students with MPA. A quantitative content analysis of scientific and non-scientific MPA literature identified preparation, open communication, realistic expectations, exposure therapy, and deep breathing as the five most common coping strategies mentioned in the literature. Qualitative thematic analyses of literature and semi-structured interview transcripts with piano teachers provided descriptions of the five commonly identified strategies. A comparison of literature and interview results suggests a gap between research knowledge of MPA and practical teaching application. While music teachers employ a variety of strategies to help students cope with MPA, they may also benefit from formal MPA training opportunities grounded in research to provide additional resources for effectively managing students with MPA. The four articles of the dissertation combine to give an overview of MPA in young musicians from several different perspectives. Findings from article one help identify students who may be more at risk to suffer from MPA, while self-modeling findings from articles two and three provide musicians and teachers with a viable strategy to help reduce MPA and increase self-efficacy. Finally, given that teachers can act as a front-line defense against MPA (Liu, 2016), findings from article four help identify areas where researchers can provide teachers with further MPA training, which will in turn help fortify young musicians against MPA.

Online communication is a common component of contemporary life. However, research into its impact on well-being has found conflicting results. Although social media may have a detrimental impact on well-being, particularly in young adults (O’Reilly et al., 2018), some studies have found social media networking to have a beneficial influence on well-being (Ellison et al., 2007; Kim, 2017), which may contribute to improved academic performance among students (Al-Rahmi & Othman, 2013). The potential for such effects to extend to musicians in their experience of music performance anxiety (MPA) was the impetus for the current qualitative study, whose purpose was to explore friend and follower engagement on social media and its connection to self-esteem and MPA, using the PERMA Model (Seligman, 2011) to guide the inquiry. Six novice college-aged piano students completed State-Trait Anxiety (STAI-S) and Coopersmith Self-Esteem (CSEI) inventories, a demographic and social media use questionnaire, and two individual semi-structured interviews. Data were collected (1) at the outset of the study; (2) (a) after posting a short video excerpt of the piano performance on social media platforms and interacting with friends and followers, and (b) 30 minutes before the official performance at a live event; and (3) after the completion of the live performance. The findings suggest potential benefits of social media networking on novice music students’ well-being, Self-Esteem, and MPA. Social media interaction with friends and followers and novice piano students was frequently noted as a positive and significant contributing element to and preparation for participants’ successful performances. The awareness of the PERMA model assisted some participants in experiencing positive emotions, improving their well-being, elevating their self-esteem, and lowering their MPA. The feelings of happiness and well-being included in PERMA were linked to improved relationships between participants and their social media friends and were reported to improve their motivation, mastery, and achievement of goals, as well as feelings of support and encouragement. Negative comments did not affect participants with high self-esteem; however, it was not possible to observe the effects of negative comments on participants with low self-esteem since the one student with low self-esteem did not receive negative feedback. Despite findings from previous studies on the challenges and negative impacts of social media networking on students’ well-being, results of the current study indicate that it has the potential to be used positively. Mindful use of social media platforms may be an effective tool to help music students showcase their interests, talents, and achievements. As such, teachers may consider building strategies into their lessons to help students use social media as a learning tool for performance preparation. More research is needed on larger and more diverse groups of musicians to better understand the role of social media networking in music performance and its impact on musicians’ experience of MPA. Strategies for improving the practice and effectiveness of sharing music performances on social media platforms are discussed as pedagogical and performance-readiness tools. This study provides a starting point for music educators, administrators, and students in developing a more comprehensive understanding of the potentials and/or drawbacks of social media networking with regard to self-esteem and MPA.

Music performance anxiety (MPA) is reported in musicians of all experience, levels, and genre. However, solo classical musicians report MPA more often and at higher levels than performers in other genres because of its formal culture and traditional structure. Within solo classical musicians, collegiate training greatly differs between conservatories that award a Bachelor of Music (B.M.) and liberal arts institutions that award a Bachelor of Arts (B.A.). In 2 studies, the proposed research examines the differences in general anxiety, MPA, and private lesson content between these two groups. Participants will be from the two groups of types of collegiate music students. In Study 1, participants will take the Beck Anxiety Inventory (BAI), Kenny Music Performance Anxiety Inventory (K-MPAI), and a Personal and Musical Background Questionnaire (PMBQ) at 3 times intervals before a public, solo performance in order to assess general connections between anxiety and MPA. In Study 2, participants will partake in weekly session of 1 of 3 interventions (meditation, journal entry, and biofeedback training) in order to determine an effective method for preventing and coping with MPA. Proposed results suggest higher levels of general anxiety and MPA in conservatory music students and lower levels of MPA in participants who undergo biofeedback training. Individuals who report learning about MPA strategies in their lessons will have lower levels of MPA, suggesting the need to consistently address MPA in classical music pedagogy.

The literature on psychological well-being indicates that high levels of psychological well-being encourage a psychological loop that reinforces itself, lifting an individual on an 'upward spiral' of continued psychological flourishing, which may contribute to positive human functioning. In addition, the literature suggests that effective intervention can raise the levels of psychological well-being. There are features inherent in the training of student pianists that can contribute to their psychological vulnerability, especially with regard to self-concept and anxiety. Therefore, they can benefit from an intervention that may raise their level of psychological well-being, thus contributing to their resilience in coping with the challenges presented by their training as well as their piano performance. Clinical observations as well as research indicate that the Tomatis Method can enhance psychological well-being and improve academic functioning. Furthermore, Tomatis' theories and observations suggest that this programme can also enhance music performance, especially with regard to self-listening skills. However, although Tomatis indicates that he observed the same results with instrumentalists as with singers, his writings mostly refer to singers. Except for a single case study by Madaule in 1976, there seems to be no other scientific evidence that the Tomatis Method has benefited student pianists. Therefore, the purpose of this exploratory study was to investigate the effect of the Tomatis Method on student pianists' psychological well-being and piano performance. The empirical study consisted of a two-group pre-post assessment mixed-method design, involving thirteen 2nd year to postgraduate student pianists from the School of Music and Conservatory, of the North-West University (Potchefstroom Campus). These students were randomly assigned to an experimental group (n = 7) which was exposed to the Tomatis Listening Programme, and a non-intervention control group (n = 6). Quantitative data were obtained by means of a battery of tests, which included self-report inventories regarding psychological well-being and music performance anxiety, as well as scales regarding piano performance. The levels of the participants' psychological well-being were measured with the Scales of Psychological Well-Being (Ryff, 1989), the Affectometer 2 (Kammann & Flett, 1983), and the Profile of Mood States (Mc Nair et al., 1992). Participants' levels of music performance anxiety were measured with the Music Performance Anxiety Inventory for Adolescents (Osborne & Kenny, 2005), and the Kenny Music Performance Anxiety Inventory (Kenny et al., 2004). The quality of the students' piano performances was assessed by means of a general impression expressed as a percentage, Mills' constructs (1987) for the assessment of music performance, and Piano Performance Rating Scale (PPRS) which was developed for this study. Qualitative data were acquired by means of interviews, group discussions, projective drawings, written reports, personal observations and the Tomatis Listening Test Results indicated improvement regarding some aspects related to student pianists' psychological well-being and piano performance. Further research with regard to these aspects is required. / Thesis (M.Mus.)--North-West University, Potchefstroom Campus, 2010.

The literature on psychological well-being indicates that high levels of psychological well-being encourage a psychological loop that reinforces itself, lifting an individual on an 'upward spiral' of continued psychological flourishing, which may contribute to positive human functioning. In addition, the literature suggests that effective intervention can raise the levels of psychological well-being. There are features inherent in the training of student pianists that can contribute to their psychological vulnerability, especially with regard to self-concept and anxiety. Therefore, they can benefit from an intervention that may raise their level of psychological well-being, thus contributing to their resilience in coping with the challenges presented by their training as well as their piano performance. Clinical observations as well as research indicate that the Tomatis Method can enhance psychological well-being and improve academic functioning. Furthermore, Tomatis' theories and observations suggest that this programme can also enhance music performance, especially with regard to self-listening skills. However, although Tomatis indicates that he observed the same results with instrumentalists as with singers, his writings mostly refer to singers. Except for a single case study by Madaule in 1976, there seems to be no other scientific evidence that the Tomatis Method has benefited student pianists. Therefore, the purpose of this exploratory study was to investigate the effect of the Tomatis Method on student pianists' psychological well-being and piano performance. The empirical study consisted of a two-group pre-post assessment mixed-method design, involving thirteen 2nd year to postgraduate student pianists from the School of Music and Conservatory, of the North-West University (Potchefstroom Campus). These students were randomly assigned to an experimental group (n = 7) which was exposed to the Tomatis Listening Programme, and a non-intervention control group (n = 6). Quantitative data were obtained by means of a battery of tests, which included self-report inventories regarding psychological well-being and music performance anxiety, as well as scales regarding piano performance. The levels of the participants' psychological well-being were measured with the Scales of Psychological Well-Being (Ryff, 1989), the Affectometer 2 (Kammann & Flett, 1983), and the Profile of Mood States (Mc Nair et al., 1992). Participants' levels of music performance anxiety were measured with the Music Performance Anxiety Inventory for Adolescents (Osborne & Kenny, 2005), and the Kenny Music Performance Anxiety Inventory (Kenny et al., 2004). The quality of the students' piano performances was assessed by means of a general impression expressed as a percentage, Mills' constructs (1987) for the assessment of music performance, and Piano Performance Rating Scale (PPRS) which was developed for this study. Qualitative data were acquired by means of interviews, group discussions, projective drawings, written reports, personal observations and the Tomatis Listening Test Results indicated improvement regarding some aspects related to student pianists' psychological well-being and piano performance. Further research with regard to these aspects is required. / Thesis (M.Mus.)--North-West University, Potchefstroom Campus, 2010.

Music performance anxiety (MPA) is a significant concern for musicians of all ages, levels of mastery, and genders (Kenny, 2011). Whereas the anxiety-performance relationship has been well researched in athletes, similar research with musicians is sparse (Nordin-Bates, 2012). In the present research, video feed-forward self-modeling (FF-SM video) was explored as an intervention for use by musicians. FF-SM involves video-editing, typically, to depict a level of master performance higher than that yet attained by the individual. Although video FF-SM has been used successfully with athletes (Ste-Marie, Rymal, Vertes, & Martini, 2011) to increase self-efficacy and improve performance, its use has not yet been explored with musicians. In the present study, Bandura’s Self-efficacy Theory (1977) was used as a framework to explore whether FF-SM videos would increase self-efficacy, lower anxiety, and improve performance in adolescent musicians who self-reported MPA. Twelve string musicians, aged 13 to 18 years, who self-reported MPA took part in a two-week intervention where in one week they practiced with the use of a FF-SM video and in the alternate week they practiced without the video. At the end of each week, participants performed the selected repertoire from their video. Video FF-SM significantly increased musicians’ self-efficacy but only for those musicians who viewed the video in the second week. No changes in anxiety or performance levels were observed. Zimmerman’s triadic self-regulation model is used to explain the cyclical pattern of self-efficacy benefits. It is concluded that the FF-SM video can be an effective tool to increase self-efficacy for musicians who self-report MPA, but that an enactive experience is first needed for those benefits to occur. Research extended over a longer time frame is recommended in order to examine whether influences on anxiety and performance would emerge at a later time.

I denna studie undersöktes hur sångpedagoger ser på prestationsångest och mentala blockeringar hos sina elever. Prestationsångest hos sångare är ett relativt outforskat område, men det är en känsla som drabbar de flesta som utövar musik. Syftet med studien var att undersöka hur sångpedagoger både resonerar kring och hur de hanterar sina elevers prestationsångest och andra mentala blockeringar. Arbetet genomfördes i första hand genom en enkät som sedan låg till grund för intervjuer med åtta verksamma sångpedagoger. Studien vilar på en sociokognitiv teori. Resultatet visar att alla sångpedagoger frekvent möter elever med prestationsångest och att de alla har liknande verktyg för att hantera det. En upptäckt som gjordes var att det sällan talas om prestationsångest i musikundervisning, där många paralleller gjordes till idrottspsykologi som är ett mer utforskat ämne. Sångpedagogerna använde många verktyg som tangerade mental träning men ingen av dem ansåg sig använda någon särskild metod. Det är i nuläget ovanligt att lyfta mental träning i musikundervisning men ett konstaterande som görs är att sångpedagogen måste lära sig att hantera elevers prestationsångest för att kunna hjälpa dem vidare i utvecklingen. Resultatet visar att ett gemensamt ordförråd och gemensamma verktyg att ta till vore gynnsamt. / This study examined vocal coaches’ view on performance anxiety and mental blockages in their students. Performance anxiety is a relatively unexplored area, but it’s a feeling that affects most people who practice music. The purpose of the study was to investigate how vocal coaches both reason about and how they handle their students’ performance anxiety and other mental blockages. The work was carried out through a pilot study that formed the basis for interviews with eight practicing vocal coaches. The study is based on a social cognitive theory. Results show that all vocal coaches meet students with performance anxiety on a daily basis and that they all have similar tools to work with it. A discovery that was made was that the subject of performance anxiety was rarely talked about in music education and many parallels were made to sports psychology, which is a more explored area. The vocal coaches used many tools that are used in mental training, but they all made it clear that they did not use any particular method. It is currently unusual to highlight mental training in music education, but it’s clear that the vocal coach must learn to handle the students’ performance anxiety in order to help them further in development. The result show that a common vocabulary and common tools to use would be beneficial.