Les succursales implantées dans un pays étranger sont plus autonomes que leurs consoeurs situées dans le même pays que la maison mère. Elles évoluent dans un environnement juridique différent et par conséquent les liens avec la maison mère sont distendus. Le tribunal de l’Etat d’accueil de la succursale est compétent et les lois de ce pays sont applicables. Toutefois, les lois du pays d’accueil ne sont pas les seules à être applicables. L’absence de personnalité juridique des succursales aura pour conséquence la sollicitation des lois de la maison mère. La cohabitation entre territorialité et extraterritorialité des lois peut donner lieu soit à des conflits soit à des situations de fraude. En l’absence de coopération entre Etats, les succursales qui sont des formes de rayonnement extérieur de la société deviennent des instruments pour pratiquer non seulement le forum shopping mais aussi le law shopping et le tax shopping. / The branches implanted in foreign countries are more autonomous than branches situated in some country as the parent Company. They evolve in a different legal environment and consequently the links with the parent Company are distended. The Court of the State of reception of the branch is competent and laws of this Country are applicable. But the laws of the host country are not the only ones to be applicable. The cohabitation between territoriality and extraterritoriality of the laws can give rise either to conflicts or the situations of fraud. In the absence of cooperation between States the branches witch are forms of brilliance exterior of the Company are transformed into instruments to have a practice not only forum shopping but also law shopping and tax shopping.

Les succursales implantées dans un pays étranger sont plus autonomes que leurs consoeurs situées dans le même pays que la maison mère. Elles évoluent dans un environnement juridique différent et par conséquent les liens avec la maison mère sont distendus. Le tribunal de l'Etat d'accueil de la succursale est compétent et les lois de ce pays sont applicables. Toutefois, les lois du pays d'accueil ne sont pas les seules à être applicables. L'absence de personnalité juridique des succursales aura pour conséquence la sollicitation des lois de la maison mère. La cohabitation entre territorialité et extraterritorialité des lois peut donner lieu soit à des conflits soit à des situations de fraude. En l'absence de coopération entre Etats, les succursales qui sont des formes de rayonnement extérieur de la société deviennent des instruments pour pratiquer non seulement le forum shopping mais aussi le law shopping et le tax shopping.

Notwithstanding a broad range of internal and external stresses, Macedonia was the only republic to attain its independence peacefully from the otherwise violent disintegration of the former Yugoslavia in the early 1990s. Subject of a timely and sustained international response, it was feted as a rare preventive success for the international community. Whilst not necessarily decisive, this mobilisation helped ensure a non-violent transition to independence. Yet, much to the surprise of outside observers, Macedonia would fall into conflict a decade after independence, when self-styled freedom fighters purporting to represent the local Albanian community launched an eight-month insurgency in the name of political and cultural equality. Triggered by a coalescence of political, nationalist, ideological and criminal interests, the insurgency had complex roots, as much an intra-Albanian putsch as a struggle for greater group rights. Regardless of their precise genesis, from the perspective of conflict prevention, the events of 2001 challenge popular assumptions of Macedonia as an international success story. Above all, they reinforce the need for external actors to incorporate short-term strategies of prevention targeting immediate sources of instability within a more comprehensive, long-term framework that addresses structural, underlying conflict causes. Indeed, whilst proximate threats to Macedonian stability were addressed, fundamental risk factors remained, namely social polarisation, a large ethnic minority disenfranchised with the state, economic under-development, high levels of organised crime and corruption, a weak rule-of-law and continuing regional uncertainty. These were partly aggravated by the mistakes of a complacent international community, whose engagement in the country, accordingly, receded over time. In particular, the dissertation is critical of the European Union for its initial failure to articulate a genuine pathway to membership for Macedonia and the broader western Balkans, as well as the handling of NATO's military intervention in neighbouring Kosovo. Of course, in any preventive endeavour, the international community can only do so much; in the first instance, responsibility lay with unresponsive Macedonian institutions, who failed to adequately address legitime Albanian demands dating from independence. Be that as it may, the international community was culpable for its failure to sufficiently apply the formidable soft-power leverage it wields over a weak Macedonian state to implement reforms that, conceivably, could have precluded the outbreak of armed conflict. As a case-study of prevention, Macedonia holds instructive lessons for scholars and policymakers. Yet it remains under-researched. Examining the period 1991-2001, this investigation analyses precisely why and how Macedonia avoided violence during the process of Yugoslav dissolution yet ultimately fell into conflict, and extrapolates broader lessons that may be applied to other at-risk societies. Its purpose is to advance understanding of a poorly understood country, and contribute knowledge to key on-going international security debates. Highlighting the inter-connectedness and trans-national character of contemporary security threats, it posits that the major powers have a practical interest in addressing emerging intra-state crises, even when the putative national interest appears marginal. To facilitate more timely multilateral responses, it calls for the de-nationalisation of security, and its conceptualisation in international - as opposed to strictly national - terms.

Notwithstanding a broad range of internal and external stresses, Macedonia was the only republic to attain its independence peacefully from the otherwise violent disintegration of the former Yugoslavia in the early 1990s. Subject of a timely and sustained international response, it was feted as a rare preventive success for the international community. Whilst not necessarily decisive, this mobilisation helped ensure a non-violent transition to independence. Yet, much to the surprise of outside observers, Macedonia would fall into conflict a decade after independence, when self-styled freedom fighters purporting to represent the local Albanian community launched an eight-month insurgency in the name of political and cultural equality. Triggered by a coalescence of political, nationalist, ideological and criminal interests, the insurgency had complex roots, as much an intra-Albanian putsch as a struggle for greater group rights. Regardless of their precise genesis, from the perspective of conflict prevention, the events of 2001 challenge popular assumptions of Macedonia as an international success story. Above all, they reinforce the need for external actors to incorporate short-term strategies of prevention targeting immediate sources of instability within a more comprehensive, long-term framework that addresses structural, underlying conflict causes. Indeed, whilst proximate threats to Macedonian stability were addressed, fundamental risk factors remained, namely social polarisation, a large ethnic minority disenfranchised with the state, economic under-development, high levels of organised crime and corruption, a weak rule-of-law and continuing regional uncertainty. These were partly aggravated by the mistakes of a complacent international community, whose engagement in the country, accordingly, receded over time. In particular, the dissertation is critical of the European Union for its initial failure to articulate a genuine pathway to membership for Macedonia and the broader western Balkans, as well as the handling of NATO's military intervention in neighbouring Kosovo. Of course, in any preventive endeavour, the international community can only do so much; in the first instance, responsibility lay with unresponsive Macedonian institutions, who failed to adequately address legitime Albanian demands dating from independence. Be that as it may, the international community was culpable for its failure to sufficiently apply the formidable soft-power leverage it wields over a weak Macedonian state to implement reforms that, conceivably, could have precluded the outbreak of armed conflict. As a case-study of prevention, Macedonia holds instructive lessons for scholars and policymakers. Yet it remains under-researched. Examining the period 1991-2001, this investigation analyses precisely why and how Macedonia avoided violence during the process of Yugoslav dissolution yet ultimately fell into conflict, and extrapolates broader lessons that may be applied to other at-risk societies. Its purpose is to advance understanding of a poorly understood country, and contribute knowledge to key on-going international security debates. Highlighting the inter-connectedness and trans-national character of contemporary security threats, it posits that the major powers have a practical interest in addressing emerging intra-state crises, even when the putative national interest appears marginal. To facilitate more timely multilateral responses, it calls for the de-nationalisation of security, and its conceptualisation in international - as opposed to strictly national - terms.

Dans le long processus de construction du système des partis brésilien, l'incertitude persiste sur la possibilité de faire avancer le processus de nationalisation des partis. Les partis politiques brésiliens avec leurs bases organisationnelles et leurs votes électoraux sont-ils nationalisés ou régionalisés par territoire national? La thèse proposée est qu'il ya une nationalisation progressive des partis brésiliens, depuis la première expérience démocratique (1945-1964), à travers le système des deux partis de la dictature civilo-militaire (1964-1986) à la démocratie (1986-2014), ce qui réduit les effets de régionalisation caractéristique des premières phases des partis du pays. Par conséquent, l'analyse se concentrera sur un indicateur important pour mesurer le degré de nationalisation du parti, à savoir: Parti Nationalisation Score (PNS). Les données empiriques qui seront utilisées pour analyser la nationalisation du parti brésilien proviennent des statistiques électorales des partis politiques pour occuper un siège à la Chambre des représentants et dans les assemblées publiques disponibles dans la base de données de la Cour Supérieure (TSE) ou de la recherche documentaire bibliographique. Les résultats de cette thèse montrent que les partis brésiliens contemporains se situent à un haut niveau de nationalisation, se distanciant du régionalisation. / No longo processo de construção do sistema partidário brasileiro, uma incerteza ainda paira sobre a possibilidade de avanço do processo de nacionalização partidária. Por acaso estariam os partidos políticos brasileiros com suas bases organizativas e votações eleitorais nacionalizadas ou regionalizadas pelo território nacional? A tese proposta é de que há uma gradativa nacionalização dos partidos brasileiros, desde a primeira experiência democrática (1945-1964), passando pelo bipartidarismo da ditadura civil-militar (1964-1986) até a redemocratização (1986-2014), diminuindo os efeitos característicos de regionalização das primeiras fases de partidos do país. Para tanto, a análise se concentrará em um importante indicador para mensurar o grau de nacionalização partidária, qual seja: o Party Nationalization Score (PNS). Os dados empíricos que serão usados para analisar a nacionalização partidária brasileira provêm das estatísticas eleitorais dos partidos políticos para ocupação de uma cadeira na Câmara dos Deputados e nas Assembleias Estaduais disponíveis no banco de dados do Tribunal Superior Eleitoral (TSE) ou de pesquisa bibliográfica documental. Os resultados desta tese mostram que os partidos brasileiros contemporâneos estão em um patamar elevado de nacionalização distanciando-se da regionalização. / In the long process of building the Brazilian party system, uncertainty still lingers over the possibility of advancing the process of party nationalization. Are the Brazilian political parties with their organizational bases and electoral votes nationalized or regionalized by national territory? The thesis proposed is that there is a gradual nationalization of Brazilian parties, from the first democratic experience (1945-1964), through the bipartisanship of the civil-military dictatorship (1964-1986) to the re-democratization (1986-2014), reducing the effects of the characteristic regionalization of the first phases of the country's parties. To do so, the analysis will focus on an important indicator to measure the degree of party nationalization, namely: Party Nationalization Score (PNS). The empirical data that will be used to analyze the Brazilian party nationalization comes from the electoral statistics of the political parties to occupy a seat in the Chamber of Deputies and in the State Assemblies available in the database of the Superior Electoral Court (TSE) or from bibliographic documentary research. The results of this thesis show that contemporary Brazilian parties are on a high level of nationalization, distancing themselves from regionalization.

Dans le long processus de construction du système des partis brésilien, l'incertitude persiste sur la possibilité de faire avancer le processus de nationalisation des partis. Les partis politiques brésiliens avec leurs bases organisationnelles et leurs votes électoraux sont-ils nationalisés ou régionalisés par territoire national? La thèse proposée est qu'il ya une nationalisation progressive des partis brésiliens, depuis la première expérience démocratique (1945-1964), à travers le système des deux partis de la dictature civilo-militaire (1964-1986) à la démocratie (1986-2014), ce qui réduit les effets de régionalisation caractéristique des premières phases des partis du pays. Par conséquent, l'analyse se concentrera sur un indicateur important pour mesurer le degré de nationalisation du parti, à savoir: Parti Nationalisation Score (PNS). Les données empiriques qui seront utilisées pour analyser la nationalisation du parti brésilien proviennent des statistiques électorales des partis politiques pour occuper un siège à la Chambre des représentants et dans les assemblées publiques disponibles dans la base de données de la Cour Supérieure (TSE) ou de la recherche documentaire bibliographique. Les résultats de cette thèse montrent que les partis brésiliens contemporains se situent à un haut niveau de nationalisation, se distanciant du régionalisation. / No longo processo de construção do sistema partidário brasileiro, uma incerteza ainda paira sobre a possibilidade de avanço do processo de nacionalização partidária. Por acaso estariam os partidos políticos brasileiros com suas bases organizativas e votações eleitorais nacionalizadas ou regionalizadas pelo território nacional? A tese proposta é de que há uma gradativa nacionalização dos partidos brasileiros, desde a primeira experiência democrática (1945-1964), passando pelo bipartidarismo da ditadura civil-militar (1964-1986) até a redemocratização (1986-2014), diminuindo os efeitos característicos de regionalização das primeiras fases de partidos do país. Para tanto, a análise se concentrará em um importante indicador para mensurar o grau de nacionalização partidária, qual seja: o Party Nationalization Score (PNS). Os dados empíricos que serão usados para analisar a nacionalização partidária brasileira provêm das estatísticas eleitorais dos partidos políticos para ocupação de uma cadeira na Câmara dos Deputados e nas Assembleias Estaduais disponíveis no banco de dados do Tribunal Superior Eleitoral (TSE) ou de pesquisa bibliográfica documental. Os resultados desta tese mostram que os partidos brasileiros contemporâneos estão em um patamar elevado de nacionalização distanciando-se da regionalização. / In the long process of building the Brazilian party system, uncertainty still lingers over the possibility of advancing the process of party nationalization. Are the Brazilian political parties with their organizational bases and electoral votes nationalized or regionalized by national territory? The thesis proposed is that there is a gradual nationalization of Brazilian parties, from the first democratic experience (1945-1964), through the bipartisanship of the civil-military dictatorship (1964-1986) to the re-democratization (1986-2014), reducing the effects of the characteristic regionalization of the first phases of the country's parties. To do so, the analysis will focus on an important indicator to measure the degree of party nationalization, namely: Party Nationalization Score (PNS). The empirical data that will be used to analyze the Brazilian party nationalization comes from the electoral statistics of the political parties to occupy a seat in the Chamber of Deputies and in the State Assemblies available in the database of the Superior Electoral Court (TSE) or from bibliographic documentary research. The results of this thesis show that contemporary Brazilian parties are on a high level of nationalization, distancing themselves from regionalization.

The diploma thesis is focused on the economic development of Czechoslovakia after 1945 up to the political takeover in 1948, when communists finally assumed power. The work offers the view of Czech economy influenced by the experience of the Great Depression in the 1930s, occupation and the transformation of economic thinking in Europe. The main concern is to answer the questions to what extend the post-war reconstruction was successful, what the political conditions of the changes in our economy were and which economic results they produced. The land reform, final solution of German question by the expulsion of Germans, nationalisation of industry, codification of two-year economic plan and refusal of the Marshall plan are considered to be the key points. The allience with the Soviet Union played an important role too. The main conclusion of the work is that, in Czechoslovakia, the successful transformation from war economy to a mixed economy, in which the main role of the state was supplemented by a private sector, was accomplished. The existence of different alternatives of development, which could not be realized because of the increasing influence of communists in the government, is considered to be the key factor for the economic development in the years 1945-1948.

Dans le long processus de construction du système des partis brésilien, l'incertitude persiste sur la possibilité de faire avancer le processus de nationalisation des partis. Les partis politiques brésiliens avec leurs bases organisationnelles et leurs votes électoraux sont-ils nationalisés ou régionalisés par territoire national? La thèse proposée est qu'il ya une nationalisation progressive des partis brésiliens, depuis la première expérience démocratique (1945-1964), à travers le système des deux partis de la dictature civilo-militaire (1964-1986) à la démocratie (1986-2014), ce qui réduit les effets de régionalisation caractéristique des premières phases des partis du pays. Par conséquent, l'analyse se concentrera sur un indicateur important pour mesurer le degré de nationalisation du parti, à savoir: Parti Nationalisation Score (PNS). Les données empiriques qui seront utilisées pour analyser la nationalisation du parti brésilien proviennent des statistiques électorales des partis politiques pour occuper un siège à la Chambre des représentants et dans les assemblées publiques disponibles dans la base de données de la Cour Supérieure (TSE) ou de la recherche documentaire bibliographique. Les résultats de cette thèse montrent que les partis brésiliens contemporains se situent à un haut niveau de nationalisation, se distanciant du régionalisation. / No longo processo de construção do sistema partidário brasileiro, uma incerteza ainda paira sobre a possibilidade de avanço do processo de nacionalização partidária. Por acaso estariam os partidos políticos brasileiros com suas bases organizativas e votações eleitorais nacionalizadas ou regionalizadas pelo território nacional? A tese proposta é de que há uma gradativa nacionalização dos partidos brasileiros, desde a primeira experiência democrática (1945-1964), passando pelo bipartidarismo da ditadura civil-militar (1964-1986) até a redemocratização (1986-2014), diminuindo os efeitos característicos de regionalização das primeiras fases de partidos do país. Para tanto, a análise se concentrará em um importante indicador para mensurar o grau de nacionalização partidária, qual seja: o Party Nationalization Score (PNS). Os dados empíricos que serão usados para analisar a nacionalização partidária brasileira provêm das estatísticas eleitorais dos partidos políticos para ocupação de uma cadeira na Câmara dos Deputados e nas Assembleias Estaduais disponíveis no banco de dados do Tribunal Superior Eleitoral (TSE) ou de pesquisa bibliográfica documental. Os resultados desta tese mostram que os partidos brasileiros contemporâneos estão em um patamar elevado de nacionalização distanciando-se da regionalização. / In the long process of building the Brazilian party system, uncertainty still lingers over the possibility of advancing the process of party nationalization. Are the Brazilian political parties with their organizational bases and electoral votes nationalized or regionalized by national territory? The thesis proposed is that there is a gradual nationalization of Brazilian parties, from the first democratic experience (1945-1964), through the bipartisanship of the civil-military dictatorship (1964-1986) to the re-democratization (1986-2014), reducing the effects of the characteristic regionalization of the first phases of the country's parties. To do so, the analysis will focus on an important indicator to measure the degree of party nationalization, namely: Party Nationalization Score (PNS). The empirical data that will be used to analyze the Brazilian party nationalization comes from the electoral statistics of the political parties to occupy a seat in the Chamber of Deputies and in the State Assemblies available in the database of the Superior Electoral Court (TSE) or from bibliographic documentary research. The results of this thesis show that contemporary Brazilian parties are on a high level of nationalization, distancing themselves from regionalization.

After the repeal of the Corn Laws ended the policy of protectionism which had enabled Britain to feed herself from within her own resources, free trade resulted in domestic food production constituting only 30% of the British diet. This study looks at the political discourse from 1880 to 1939 when the ¿empty countryside¿ became a symbol of agricultural decline. Emerging radical and socialist narratives put forward approaches for rural regeneration and increased food production. Other narratives suggested that agricultural decline was one manifestation of national decline whereby a self sufficient and proud nation was being betrayed by Capitalism. Both Left and Right offered up the prospect of different solutions predicated upon shared perceptions of ¿Englishness.¿ The experience of Irish famine failed to inform political action or policy making. The study notes the importance of War upon the development of food policy. Increasingly, the State joined forces with the NFU in a corporate endeavour which sought to manage, rather than increase, food production and created structures which became increasingly important in the context of rearmament. Increased food production was rejected upon defence grounds in that free trade and a navy were seen as appropriate safeguards. Those countries which sought to follow self sufficiency ¿ or autarky ¿ are portrayed as warlike in their intentions; by 1939 all mainstream political parties rejected the notion of artificially increased food production. Those who continued to press for increased food production concentrated either upon earlier pre Capitalist societies or were attracted by Fascism and strong leadership. After such searches became increasingly problematic there was emphasis upon the soil, with the adoption of an approach which was both practical and mystical.

Ce mémoire de maîtrise analyse les influences transnationales qui ont mené à la nationalisation de l’électricité au Québec. En contraste avec les précédentes études sur Hydro-Québec voulant que les incitatifs locaux fussent la source exclusive de la nationalisation de l’électricité au Québec, cette recherche vient démontrer que les idées transnationales ont été tout aussi influentes. Tout au long du récit, on voit que la conjoncture politico-économique de refonte du libéralisme économique classique vers une version plus keynésienne de l’économie occidentale a été un stimulant de première importance pour la nationalisation de l’électricité au Québec. Dans le premier chapitre sont détaillées les nationalisations d’électricité de l’Ontario, de la Vallée du Tennessee et de la France, ainsi que les relations qu’elles ont eues entre elles et avec le Québec. Dans un second temps, il est démontré que l’étatisation de l’électricité en Ontario au début du XXe siècle et celle de la Vallée du Tennessee durant la crise économique des années 1930 ont été des incitatifs majeurs pour le projet menant à la nationalisation de la Montreal Light Heat & Power en 1944. Enfin, dans le troisième chapitre, ce sont les influences venant des nationalisations d’électricité étasunienne, ontarienne et française sur la nationalisation de l’ensemble des compagnies d’électricité québécoises de 1963 qui sont analysées. / This thesis explores the transnational forces that led to the nationalization of electricity in Quebec. In opposition to the traditional narrative that sees the nationalization in Quebec as a product of the local incentives, we look at the transnational ideas that were as important for the realization of the project. Throughout the text, we see that the Keynesian context that led western states to be more interventionist in the economy was a major influence on the nationalization of electricity in Quebec. In the first chapter, we detail the nationalization of electricity in Ontario, in the Tennessee Valley and in France, and the links between them and with Quebec. Secondly, we show that the nationalization of electricity in Ontario in 1906 and in the Tennessee Valley in 1933 were key for the nationalization of the Montreal Light Heat & Power in 1944. Finally, the third chapter explores how the nationalisation of electricity in Ontario, United States and France were influential on the nationalization of all the electric companies in Quebec in 1963.