La 5-azacytidine (AZA) est un médicament approuvé pour le traitement des leucémies myéloïdes aiguës des patients qui ne sont pas éligibles à une greffe de cellules souches hématopoïétiques. Bien que l’AZA est augmenté significativement le pronostic des patients, le mécanisme d’action précis de l’AZA demeure nébuleux. En plus de son activité d’hypométhylation, il a été montré que l’AZA a aussi des effets immunologiques. Des études précédentes suggèrent que ces réponses immunitaires sont causées par des modifications du répertoire de peptides présentés par le CMH-I (MAPs), dont l’expression de MAPs dérivés de rétroéléments endogènes (EREs) et des cancer-testis antigens (CTAs). Ces gènes sont généralement réprimés par la méthylation de l’ADN. Dans cette thèse, nous avons testé cette hypothèse à l’aide de séquençage à haut débit et de spectrométrie de masse appliqués à quatre lignées cellulaires d’AML différentes. Notre approche protéogénomique d’avant-garde a révélé que l’AZA induit la présentation de MAPs dérivés de CTAs, mais pas d’EREs, malgré le fait que ces deux groupes de séquences soient surexprimés au niveau transcriptomique. Ces résultats indiquent que les réponses des lymphocytes T observées chez les patients suite au traitement à l’AZA dépendent probablement des MAPs dérivés des CTAs, et non pas des EREs. Les EREs stimulés par l’AZA ont tout de même un impact sur la réponse immunitaire en formant des ARN double-brins menant à une activation de l’immunité innée. L’incorporation de l’AZA et l’inhibition subséquente de la DNMT2 mène cependant à des agrégats protéiques et à l’autophagie, qui dégrade les transcrits EREs et limite leur surexpression. Nous avons démontré que les effets immunologiques de l’AZA peuvent être amplifiés par un traitement combiné de l’AZA et d’inhibiteurs de l’autophagie. De plus, le travail contenu dans cette thèse a montré que bien qu’elles soient un modèle expérimental pratique, les lignées cellulaires ont des limitations et doivent être utilisés avec prudence. Des différences majeures ont été observées entre des lignées cellulaires supposément identiques provenant de fournisseurs établis. Nos analyses ont permis de démontrer quelle lignée cellulaire était la plus similaire à la lignée parentale. Ainsi, ce travail fourni des recommandations pour améliorer les lignes directrices d’utilisation des lignées cellulaires en recherche. / 5-azacytidine (AZA) is approved for the treatment of acute myeloid leukemia (AML) patients ineligible for hematopoietic cell transplantation. Although AZA treatment has substantially improved patient outcomes, there remains a lack of clear understanding of the mechanisms driving these responses. In addition to its hypomethylating activity, AZA has been shown to have immunological effects. Previous reports suggest that these immune responses occur due to alterations in the repertoire of MHC-I-associated peptides (MAPs), including the expression of MAPs deriving from endogenous retroelements (EREs) and cancer-testis antigens (CTAs). These genes are typically silenced by methylation. With this thesis, we aimed to test this hypothesis using high-coverage RNA sequencing and mass spectrometry in four different AML cell lines. Our state-of-the-art proteogenomic approach uncovered that AZA treatment induced MAPs deriving from CTAs, but not EREs, despite both being upregulated at the RNA level. This indicates that T-cell responses post-AZA treatment are more likely to be dependent on CTA- than ERE-derived MAP presentation. AZA-induced EREs produced at the RNA level still contributed to immune responses by forming double-stranded RNA leading to a state of viral mimicry. However, AZA incorporation into RNA and subsequent DNMT2-inhibition led to protein aggregation and autophagy responses. These responses were responsible for degrading EREs, which limited their upregulation. We further demonstrate that the immune effects of AZA can be enhanced by the combination of AZA with autophagy inhibitors. Additionally, the work in this thesis has shown that although a practical model, cell lines have their caveats and must be used with caution. This work has highlighted the grave discrepancies between supposedly identical cell lines supplied by established repositories. Moreover, our analyses determine which of the two is closer to the parental cell line. Finally, this work provides recommendations for improving the current guidelines for cell line-based research.

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Tesis por compendio / [ES] La detección y diagnóstico de resistencias en Mycobacterium tuberculosis (MTB) supone un reto para el control de la tuberculosis (TB). La técnica diagnóstica implica el cultivo de muestras diagnósticas, pero este proceso es lento y retrasa los resultados hasta meses demorando la prescripción del tratamiento óptimo. El cultivo también se utiliza para enriquecer muestras diagnósticas con fines de investigación, como la secuenciación del genoma de MTB. Sin embargo, se desconoce si cultivar reduce la diversidad genética de la muestra diagnóstica, sesgando los resultados. Actualmente, las técnicas moleculares permiten evitar el cultivo en el diagnóstico, detectando resistencia a antibióticos más rápidamente, pero se limitan a identificar las mutaciones comunes asociadas a la resistencia a la rifampicina (RIF) e isoniazida (INH), los fármacos de primera línea. No obstante, la composición compleja de las muestras diagnósticas como el esputo sigue siendo un desafío para la secuenciación. Esta tesis presenta técnicas y estrategias de secuenciación para recuperar MTB a partir de esputos, centrándose en la diversidad genética en esputos y cultivos y explorando el potencial de la secuenciación para determinar resistencias. En el Capítulo 1 comparamos la diversidad genética entre pares de esputos y cultivos en dos entornos diferentes. Desarrollamos una técnica de secuenciación de esputos, realizando una secuenciación directa o enriquecida según la cantidad de MTB presente. Además, implementamos un flujo de análisis para descartar artefactos del procesamiento de muestras. Los resultados muestran una alta concordancia en la diversidad entre esputos y cultivos, cuestionando la hipótesis inicial del cuello de botella en el cultivo. En el Capítulo 2 exploramos las limitaciones del Gene Xpert MTB/RIF Ultra (XpertUltra) para identificar mutaciones de resistencia a RIF, examinando las mutaciones de resistencia más prevalentes en el sur de Mozambique. Utilizamos la secuenciación del genoma completo para identificar variantes de resistencia en cepas recolectadas en Manhiça, Mozambique. Detectamos dos cepas con mutaciones de resistencia a RIF no identificadas por el XpertUltra y una alta prevalencia de cepas resistentes a INH sin resistencia a RIF (no multirresistentes, MDR). Los resultados sugieren que el XpertUltra podría no detectar algunos casos de resistencia a RIF y/o INH, destacando la necesidad de incluir nuevas mutaciones en las pruebas moleculares. En el Capítulo 3 evaluamos el potencial de la secuenciación de amplicones para predecir la resistencia a antibióticos e identificar el linaje de las cepas. Diseñamos un panel de nueve genes asociados a la resistencia a siete antibióticos y dos regiones filogenéticas, poniendo a punto una PCR multiplex para amplificar todas las regiones en una sola reacción. A diferencia de otros paneles, los cebadores diseñados cubren los genes completos para detectar todas las mutaciones presentes. La secuenciación se realiza con MinION (Nanopore), una plataforma portátil con análisis en tiempo real. Comparamos las variantes obtenidas con las de Illumina para calibrar los parámetros del llamado de variantes y evitar falsos positivos. Los resultados muestran una alta correlación entre MinION e Illumina en la detección de resistencia e identificación de linajes, independientemente del tipo de muestra. Estos resultados, junto con el análisis en tiempo real de MinION, son prometedores para su implementación en atención primaria. En conclusión, esta tesis contribuye a los avances en la genómica de muestras diagnósticas. Por un lado, demostrando que el cultivo refleja la diversidad genética del esputo, y por otro, revelando el potencial de la secuenciación del genoma y de amplicones para predecir resistencia a antibióticos. Las técnicas y resultados que se presentan contribuirán a promover la secuenciación directa de esputo como técnica de diagnóstico rápida y precisa, pero también su uso para la investigación. / [CA] La detecció i diagnòstic de resistències en Mycobacterium tuberculosis (MTB) suposa un repte per al control de la tuberculosi (TB). La tècnica de referència ha estat el cultiu de mostres diagnòstiques, però aquest procés és lent, retardant els resultats durant setmanes o mesos i dificultant la prescripció d'un tractament òptim. El cultiu també s'ha utilitzat per enriquir mostres diagnòstiques amb finalitats de recerca, com la seqüenciació del genoma de MTB. No obstant això, encara es desconeix si el cultiu redueix la diversitat genètica de la mostra diagnòstica, cosa que podria generar un biaix en els resultats. Actualment, les tècniques moleculars han permès evitar el cultiu en el diagnòstic, detectant resistència a antibiòtics més ràpidament, però es limiten a identificar les mutacions comunes associades a resistència a la rifampicina (RIF) i isoniazida (INH), els fàrmacs de primera línia. Tanmateix, la composició complexa de les mostres diagnòstiques com l'esput segueix sent un repte per a la seqüenciació. Aquesta tesi presenta tècniques i estratègies de seqüenciació per recuperar MTB a partir d'esputs, centrant-se en la diversitat genètica en esputs i cultius i explorant el potencial de la seqüenciació per determinar resistències. Al Capítol 1 comparem la diversitat genètica entre parelles d'esputs i cultius en dos entorns diferents. Desenvolupem una tècnica de seqüenciació d'esputs, realitzant una seqüenciació directa o enriquida segons la quantitat de MTB present. A més, implementem un flux d'anàlisi per descartar artefactes del processament de mostres. Els resultats mostren una alta concordança en la diversitat entre esputs i cultius, qüestionant la hipòtesi inicial d'un coll de botella al cultiu. Al Capítol 2 explorem les limitacions de la prova molecular Gene Xpert MTB/RIF Ultra (XpertUltra) per identificar mutacions de resistència a RIF, examinant les mutacions de resistència més prevalents al sud de Moçambic. Utilitzem la seqüenciació del genoma complet per identificar variants de resistència a antibiòtics en soques recol·lectades a Manhiça, Moçambic. Detectem dues soques amb mutacions de resistència a rifampicina no identificades per l'XpertUltra i una alta prevalença de soques resistents a INH sense resistència a RIF (no multiressistents, MDR). Els resultats sugereixen que l'XpertUltra pot no detectar alguns casos de resistència a RIF i/o INH, destacant la necessitat d'incloure noves mutacions en proves moleculars. Al Capítol 3 avaluem el potencial de la seqüenciació d'amplicons per predir resistència a antibiòtics i identificar el llinatge de les soques. Dissenyem un panell de nou gens associats a resistència a set antibiòtics i dues regions filogenètiques, posant a punt una PCR multiplex per amplificar totes les regions en una sola reacció. A diferència d'altres panells, els encebadors dissenyats cobreixen els gens complets, per detectar totes les mutacions presents. La seqüenciació es realitza amb MinION (Nanopore), una plataforma portàtil amb anàlisi en temps real. Comparem les variants obtingudes amb les d'Illumina per calibrar paràmetres per cridar de variants i evitar falsos positius. Els resultats mostren una alta correlació entre MinION i Illumina en la detecció de resistència i identificació de llinatges, independentment del tipus de mostra. Aquests resultats, juntament amb l'anàlisi en temps real de MinION, són prometedors per a la seva implementació en atenció primària. En conclusió, aquesta tesi contribueix als avanços en la genòmica directa de mostra diagnòstica. D'una banda, demostrant que el cultiu reflecteix la diversitat genètica de l'esput i, d'altra banda, revelant el potencial de la seqüenciació del genoma i d'amplicons per predir resistència a antibiòtics. Els resultats obtinguts superen les limitacions de les proves moleculars actuals, i les tècniques presentades podrien promoure la seqüenciació directa d'esput com a eina de diagnòstic ràpida i precisa, així com per a la investigació. / [EN] Mycobacterium tuberculosis (MTB) detection and diagnosis of drug resistance(DR) have been a challenge for tuberculosis(TB) control. Culturing mycobacteria from diagnostic samples has been the most commonly used diagnostic technique. However, culturing depends on MTB's slow growth, delaying results and the prescription of optimal treatment for weeks to months. Culture is also essential for research purposes such as MTB genomics. However, it remains unclear whether it causes a bottleneck in the sample's original genetic diversity, potentially biasing results. Skipping the culturing step has been possible with the introduction of molecular techniques in surveillance systems. These reduce turnaround time and allow MTB and DR detection through a single assay. However, such tests are limited to detecting common mutations associated with rifampicin(RIF) and isoniazid(INH) resistance. Moreover, the complex composition of diagnostic samples, like sputum, continues to challenge sequencing workflows in research. In this thesis, we explore different sequencing approaches to recover and sequence MTB from sputum samples, focusing on overcoming the hypothesized culture bottleneck and evaluating the potential of sequencing for DR prediction. In Chapter 1, we compare genetic diversity within sputum-culture paired samples in two settings. We implement a culture-free sequencing (cfWGS) approach for sputum, using both direct and enriched sequencing, depending on the initial amount of MTB DNA. We also develop an analysis pipeline to filter artifactual variants from cfWGS approaches. To generalize results, three additional datasets are reanalyzed. The results show high concordance in genetic diversity between sputum-culture pairs, both in terms of presence and frequency of variants. These results contradict the initial culture bottleneck assumption, emphasizing the importance of tailored filtering steps depending on sample complexity. In Chapter 2, we explore the limitations of the Gene Xpert MTB/RIF Ultra (XpertUltra) for detecting non-common mutations and screen for prevalent DR mutations in southern Mozambique. We use WGS to identify DR variants in strains collected in Manhiça (Mozambique) during two time periods. Two strains were found to harbor RIF resistance mutations beyond XpertUltra's detection scope. We also detect a high prevalence of INH-resistant strains without RIF resistance (non-MDR TB). This suggests that XpertUltra, the primary diagnostic tool in the region, sometimes misclassifies RIF-resistant cases, highlighting the need for expanded drug and mutation coverage in molecular diagnostic tests. In Chapter 3, we assess the potential of targeted sequencing for DR prediction and lineage identification by designing a gene panel of 9 genes associated with resistance to 7 drugs and two phylogenetic regions. We develop a multiplex PCR to amplify all target regions in one reaction. Unlike other commercial panels, our primers cover entire genes allowing the identification of all mutations, not just those in hotspot regions. We employ the portable MinION (Nanopore) platform, which provides real-time analysis. A key aim is to calibrate parameters for MinION variant calling by comparing its results to Illumina sequencing, establishing a frequency cut-off to avoid false positives due to MinION's error rate. Our results show high concordance between MinION and Illumina in detecting DR and genotyping, regardless of the sample type. These findings present a significant advantage for future implementation in point-of-care systems. This thesis advances the field of cfWGS by confirming that culture mirrors sputum's genetic diversity and demonstrating the potential of whole genome and targeted sequencing to overcome the limitations of current molecular diagnostic tests in predicting DR. The techniques and findings presented could help promote cfWGS as a front-line approach for faster, more accurate diagnosis, and contribute to further research. / This work has been supported by the following: European Research Council (ERC): H2020-ERC-COG/0800; Ministerio Español de Ciencia e Innovación: PID2022-137607OB-I00; Fundació La Caixa: HR21-00415, International Science and Technology Center (ISTC): Project #G-2143 and National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases (NIH). This work was also supported by STOP TB partnership [STBP/TBREACH/GSA/W5-30: CA-3-D000920001], the TB Portals programme of the National Institutes of Health, the European Research Council [101001038-TB-RECONNECT: H2020-ERC-COG/0800 and 638553-TB-ACCELERATE], Generalitat Valenciana [AICO/2018/113], the Spanish Ministry of Science and Innovation [PID2019-104477RB-I00] and the Ministerio de Economía, Indústria y Competividad (SAF2016-77346-R) / Mariner Llicer, C. (2024). Culture-Free Sequencing of Mycobacterium Tuberculosis for Diagnosis and Genetic Diversity Identification [Tesis doctoral]. Universitat Politècnica de València. https://doi.org/10.4995/Thesis/10251/213332 / Compendio

La pathogenèse de la sacculite anale demeure incomprise. Cette condition semble cependant être plus fréquente chez les chiens atopiques. La sacculite anale se traite principalement avec un antibiotique. Avec la montée de l’antibiorésistance, il est important de mieux comprendre sa pathogenèse afin de prévenir la maladie et trouver des traitements alternatifs aux antibiotiques. Cette étude visait donc à comparer le microbiote bactérien et les cytokines pro-inflammatoires dans les sacs anaux de chiens sains à ceux de chiens atopiques, afin de déterminer si des changements pourraient être à l’origine des sacculites anales chez les chiens atopiques. L’hypothèse de ce projet était que le microbiote bactérien et les cytokines pro-inflammatoires dans les sacs anaux des chiens sains diffèrent de ceux des chiens atopiques traités ou non traités. Les principaux objectifs de cette étude étaient donc de caractériser le microbiote bactérien (MB) des sacs anaux des chiens atopiques recevant ou non un traitement (oclacitinib, cetirizine ou immunothérapie allergénique) et de déterminer si la concentration de certaines cytokines pro-inflammatoires libérées dans les sacs anaux variait entre les chiens sains et les chiens atopiques non traités (CANT) et les chiens atopiques traités (CAT). Des écouvillons floqués ont été utilisés pour échantillonner le rectum et les sécrétions provenant des sacs anaux de 15 chiens sains, six CAT et 14 CANT pour l’analyse du microbiote bactérien. L’extraction de l’acide désoxyribonucléique a été effectuée avec le kit commercial DNeasy PowerSoil. Le séquençage de la région V4 du gène de l’acide ribonucléique ribosomique 16S a ensuite été réalisé avec la plateforme Illumina MiSeq. Pour l’analyse des cytokines, le contenu des sacs anaux de 15 chiens sains, 12 CANT et cinq CAT a été prélevé dans un microtube. Chaque microtube a été mélangé au vortex. Le surnageant a ensuite été prélevé. Les microtubes contenant le surnageant ont ensuite été congelés à -80°C jusqu’à leur analyse. La concentration de l’interféron gamma, des interleukines (IL)-2, 6, 8, 10 et 12/23p40, de la protéine chimiotactique 1 des monocytes, du facteur de croissance des nerfs bêta, du facteur de cellules souches, du facteur de nécrose tumorale alpha (TNF-α) et du facteur de croissance de l’endothélium vasculaire A a été mesurée avec le test multiplex de Luminex. L’appartenance à la communauté était différente entre les sacs anaux des chiens sains et des CANT, des chiens sains et des CAT et des CANT et des CAT (P = 0,002, P = 0,013 et P = 0,012, respectivement). La structure de la communauté était différente entre les chiens sains et les CANT (P = 0,003) et entre les CANT et les CAT (P = 0,017), mais pas entre les chiens sains et les CAT (P = 0,332). Toutes les cytokines pro-inflammatoires évaluées ont été détectées dans les sacs anaux de chiens sains, de CANT et de CAT. Il n’y avait aucune différence significative entre les groupes, excepté pour l’IL-8 et le TNF-α, où l’IL-8 était plus élevée dans les sacs anaux des CANT en comparaison avec ceux des CAT (P = 0,02), et le TNF-α était en concentration plus faible dans les sacs anaux des chiens sains comparativement aux sacs anaux des CAT (P = 0,04). Il y a une dysbiose dans les sacs anaux de chiens atopiques, ce qui pourrait expliquer pourquoi les chiens atopiques semblent prédisposés à développer des sacculites anales bactériennes. Les traitements (oclacitinib, cetirizine et immunothérapie allergénique) semblent également modifier la composition du microbiote bactérien dans les sacs anaux des chiens atopiques pour qu’elle se rapproche de celle des chiens sains. L'IL-8 pourrait également jouer un rôle dans le développement de la sacculite anale. D’autres études évaluant un plus large nombre de cytokines permettraient possiblement de mettre en évidence des cytokines ayant un rôle important lors de sacculite anale chez les chiens atopiques. / The pathogenesis of anal sacculitis is not well understood. However, this condition appears to be more common in atopic dogs. Anal sacculitis is primarily treated with antibiotic therapies. With the rise of antimicrobial resistance, it is important to better understand the pathogenesis of anal sacculitis in order to prevent the disease and find alternative treatments to antibiotics. The present study aimed to compare the bacterial microbiota and pro-inflammatory cytokines in the anal sacs of healthy dogs with those of atopic dogs, in order to determine if there are changes that could explain anal sacculitis in atopic dogs. The hypothesis of this project was that the bacterial microbiota and proinflammatory cytokines in the anal sacs of healthy dogs differ from those of treated and untreated atopic dogs. The main objectives of this study were therefore to characterize the bacterial microbiota of the anal sacs of atopic dogs receiving or not a treatment (oclacitinib, cetirizine or allergen-specific immunotherapy) and to determine if the concentration of certain proinflammatory cytokines released in the anal sacs differed between healthy, untreated atopic dogs (UAD) and treated atopic dogs (TAD). Flocked swabs were used to sample the rectum and secretions from the anal sacs of 15 healthy dogs, six TAD and 14 UAD for bacterial microbiota analysis. Deoxyribonucleic acid extraction was performed with the commercial DNeasy PowerSoil kit. Sequencing of the V4 region of the 16S ribosomal ribonucleic acid gene was then performed with the Illumina MiSeq platform. For cytokine analysis, the contents of the anal sacs of 15 healthy dogs, 12 UAD, and five TAD were collected in a microtube. Each microtube was vortexed before the supernatant was collected. The microtubes containing the supernatant were then frozen at -80°C until analysis. The concentration of interferon gamma, interleukin (IL)-2, 6, 8, 10, and 12/23p40, monocyte chemotactic protein 1, nerve growth factor beta, stem cell factor, tumor necrosis factor-alpha (TNF-α), and vascular endothelial growth factor-A were measured with the Luminex multiplex assay. Community membership was different between the anal sacs of healthy dogs and UAD, healthy dogs and TAD, and UAD and TAD (P = 0.002, P = 0.013, and P = 0.012, respectively). Community structure was different between healthy dogs and UAD (P = 0.003) and between UAD and TAD (P = 0.017), but not between healthy dogs and TAD (P = 0.332). All proinflammatory cytokines assessed were detected in the anal sacs of healthy dogs, UAD, and TAD. There were no significant differences between groups except for IL-8 and TNF-α. IL-8 was higher in UAD anal sacs compared to TAD anal sacs (P = 0.02) and TNF-α was in lower concentration in healthy dog anal sacs compared to TAD anal sacs (P = 0.04). There is a dysbiosis between the anal sacs of UAD and TAD which might explain why atopic dogs seem predisposed to bacterial anal sacculitis. Treatments received by atopic dogs (oclacitinib, cetirizine and allergen-specific immunotherapy) shift the microbiota of the anal sacs towards that of healthy dogs. IL-8 may also play a role in the development of anal sacculitis. Further studies on a larger number of cytokines may identify cytokines that are important in the pathogenesis of anal sacculitis in atopic dogs.

The detection of plasma cell–free tumor DNA (ctDNA) is prognostic in colorectal cancer (CRC) and has potential for early prediction of disease recurrence. In clinical routine, ctDNA-based diagnostics are limited by the low concentration of ctDNA and error rates of standard next-generation sequencing (NGS) approaches. We evaluated the potential to increase the stability and yield of plasma cell–free DNA (cfDNA) for routine diagnostic purposes using different blood collection tubes and various manual or automated cfDNA extraction protocols. Sensitivity for low-level ctDNA was measured in KRAS-mutant cfDNA using an error-reduced NGS procedure. To test the applicability of rapid evaluation of ctDNA persistence in clinical routine, we prospectively analyzed postoperative samples of 67 CRC (stage II) patients. ctDNA detection was linear between 0.0045 and 45%, with high sensitivity (94%) and specificity (100%) for mutations at 0.1% VAF. The stability and yield of cfDNA were superior when using Streck BCT tubes and a protocol by Zymo Research. Sensitivity for ctDNA increased 1.5-fold by the integration of variant reads from triplicate PCRs and with PCR template concentration. In clinical samples, ctDNA persistence was found in ∼9% of samples, drawn 2 weeks after surgery. Moreover, in a retrospective analysis of 14 CRC patients with relapse during adjuvant therapy, we successfully detected ctDNA (median 0.38% VAF; range 0.18–5.04% VAF) in 92.85% of patients significantly prior (median 112 days) to imaging-based surveillance. Using optimized pre-analytical conditions, the detection of postoperative ctDNA is feasible with excellent sensitivity and allows the prediction of CRC recurrence in routine oncology testing.

Diese Arbeit beschreibt die Kombination von Phagen-Display-Biopanning und Illumina Next-Generation DNA-Sequencing (NGS) zur Identifizierung peptidbasierter Adhäsionsdomänen für Polypropylen (PP). Eine Biopanning-Runde gefolgt von NGS liefert PP-bindende Peptide, die durch Sanger-Sequenzierung nicht erkennbar sind. NGS bietet den Vorteil eines enorm umfangreichen Datensatzes, welcher tiefgreifende Sequenzanalysen erlaubt. Die selektierten Sequenzen werden als wasserbasierte Primer für PP–Metallhaftung zur Vorbehandlung von PP-Oberflächen eingesetzt und erhöhen die Haftfestigkeit um 100 % gegenüber nicht vorbehandeltem PP. / This thesis describes the combination of phage display biopanning and Illumina Next-Generation DNA-Sequencing (NGS) to identify peptide-based adhesion domains for polypropylene (PP). One round of biopanning followed by NGS yields PP-binding peptides that are undetectable by Sanger sequencing. NGS has the advantage of an extensive data set, which allows in-depth sequence analysis. The selected peptide sequences are then used as water-based primers for PP metal adhesion for the pretreatment of PP surfaces and increase the adhesion by 100% compared to non-pretreated PP.

The Atlantic cod (Gadus morhua L.) fishery is of great economic importance to the Faroese economy. There are two separately managed cod stocks around the Faroe Islands, the Faroe Plateau and the Faroe Bank cod. Both have experienced dramatic decreases in size and informed management decisions are vital for both stock viability and exploitation. The stocks are geographically isolated by an 800 m deep channel and water temperatures are on average 1 – 2 ºC higher on the Faroe Bank than on the Faroe Plateau. There are clear phenotypic differences between the stocks; in particular, the markedly higher growth rate for the Faroe Bank cod has caught public and scientific attention. There is continuing debate regarding the relative importance of genetics and environmental contributions to the contrasting phenotypes. Analyses of reproductive parameters (field data and experimental captive spawnings) as well as analyses of microsatellite and single nucleotide polymorphism (SNP) markers were undertaken to better resolve the issue. Field data as well as data from experimental captive spawnings provided evidence of reproductive differences between Faroe Plateau and Faroe Bank cod. Peak spawning occurred earlier on the Faroe Plateau than on the Faroe Bank and this difference in timing of spawning was maintained in captivity. In particular, differences in sizes of eggs (average diameters of 1.40 and 1.30 mm for Faroe Plateau and Faroe Bank cod eggs, respectively) and indirect evidence of greater volumes spawned by the Faroe Bank females suggested stock differences with respect to egg size – egg number trade-off. It was hypothesised that the strategy adopted by cod on the Faroe Bank, with a higher number of smaller eggs, evolved in response to a more hostile environment (bare seabed and higher exposure to predators) experienced by early life stages in this area. Experimental captive spawnings with Faroe Bank cod showed a large interfamily skew in survival rates of cod eggs and fry. Egg size was identified as a useful indicator of survival rates in the egg stage, but egg survival rates could not be used to predict viability in later developmental stages, thus highlighting the importance of employing some sort of genetic monitoring of cod fry to ensure sufficient family representation in the progeny. While no tank effect was evident concerning fry survival, a significant tank effect was identified concerning body sizes of fry. Microsatellite data were analysed using large sample sizes of Faroe Plateau and Faroe Bank cod with the Faroe Plateau divided into two locations, Faroe Plateau North-East and Faroe Plateau West (cod from each of the two were known to belong to separate spawning grounds). Two Norwegian coastal cod samples were included as outlier populations. While no genetic differentiation was detected between the two Faroe Plateau locations, these analyses revealed a detectable, albeit relatively modest, degree of genetic differentiation between cod from the Faroe Plateau and the Faroe Bank (FST = 0.0014 and 0.0018; DJost_EST = 0.0027 and 0.0048; P < 0.0001 and P < 0.001 for the Faroe Plateau North-East – Faroe Bank and the Faroe Plateau West – Faroe Bank comparisons). These values were several times smaller than those between Faroese and Norwegian coastal cod (pairwise FST and DJost_EST values in the range of 0.0061 – 0.0137 and 0.0158 – 0.0386, respectively). Despite recent reductions in census population sizes for Faroe Plateau and, particularly, Faroe Bank cod, genetic diversity estimates were comparable to the ones observed for Norwegian coastal cod and there was no evidence of significant genetic bottlenecks. Lastly, data for one of the markers (Gmo132) indicated genotype-dependent vertical distribution of cod (as investigated for Faroe Plateau North-East cod). Contrary to some previously published studies, analysis of SNPs of two candidate genes for adaptive divergence, the hemoglobin gene Hb-ß1 and the transferrin gene Tf1, failed to detect differentiation between samples of Faroe Plateau and Faroe Bank cod analysed in this thesis. Of 3533 novel SNPs simultaneously discovered and genotyped by restriction-site associated DNA (RAD) sequencing, 58 showed evidence of genetic differentiation between Faroe Plateau North-East and Faroe Bank cod (P < 0.05). No single locus was fixed for different alleles between Faroe Plateau and Faroe Bank cod. A set of eight informative SNPs (FST values between Faroe Plateau and Faroe Bank samples > 0.25; P < 0.0005) were selected for validation in larger samples, that included cod from both Faroe Plateau areas and the Faroe Bank as well as Norwegian coastal and White Sea cod. Six out of the eight loci amplified successfully with a PCR-based method and there was 100 % concordance between genotypes of individuals screened by both techniques. Due to ascertainment bias, the SNPs should only be applied with caution in a broader geographical context. Nonetheless, these SNPs did confirm the genetic substructure suggested for Faroese cod by microsatellite analyses. While no genetic differentiation was evident between the two Faroe Plateau locations, significant genetic differentiation was evident between Faroe Plateau and Faroe Bank cod at five of the SNPs (FST values in the range of 0.0383 – 0.1914). This panel of five SNPs could confidently be used to trace groups of Faroe Plateau and Faroe Bank cod to their population of origin. In conclusion, multiple lines of evidence demonstrate that Faroe Plateau and Faroe Bank cod are truly two genetically distinct populations. While the findings contribute to a broader understanding of the biology and the genetics of Faroe Plateau and Faroe Bank cod, the novel SNPs developed may provide a valuable resource for potential future demands of i.e. genetic stock identification methods.

La leucémie aiguë lymphoblastique (LAL) est une maladie complexe à l’étiologie multifactorielle. Elle représente la forme la plus commune de cancer pédiatrique et malgré une augmentation significative du taux de survie des patients, près de 15% d’entre eux ne répondent pas aux traitements classiques et plus de 2/3 subissent les effets du traitement à long terme. Réduire ces chiffres passe par une meilleure compréhension des causes sous-jacentes de la LAL. À travers l’analyse des données de séquençage de nouvelle génération (SNG) de la cohorte QcALL du CHU Sainte-Justine, je me suis intéressé aux déterminants génomiques contribuant aux différents aspects de la LAL (prédispositions, développement/progression et rechutes). Dans un premier temps, j’ai développé un outil d’analyse (SNooPer) basé sur un algorithme d’apprentissage intégrant les données SNG normales et tumorales des patients, permettant d’identifier les mutations somatiques au sein de données à faible couverture (low-pass). Cet outil, couplé aux analyses prédictives in silico et aux validations fonctionnelles adéquates, nous a permis de caractériser les événements rares ou récurrents impliqués dans le processus leucémogène. En analysant les données de LALs pré-B, j’ai pu mettre en évidence une série de mutations drivers rares au niveau de gènes (ACD, DOT1L, HCFC1) qui n’avaient jamais été associés à la LAL. L’étude fonctionnelle de la mutation identifiée au niveau d’ACD, membre du complexe shelterin, a démontré qu’elle conduit à une réduction de l’apoptose et une augmentation de la taille des télomères. Outre l’intérêt de la découverte de ces nouveaux drivers, je souhaitais démontrer l’importance des mutations somatiques rares afin d'établir la spécificité interindividuelle, généralement sous-estimée, et d’identifier l’ensemble des fonctions cellulaires impliquées. Au cours de ces travaux, j'ai également mis en évidence de nouveaux évènements récurrents de la LAL à cellules T (LAL-T), en particulier au niveau de patients présentant un phénotype immature encore mal caractérisé. J'ai démontré l’influence d'une mutation dans le gène codant pour U2AF1, membre de la machinerie d’épissage (spliceosome), sur l’épissage de gènes d’intérêt et ainsi confirmer l’importance du dysfonctionnement de l’épissage dans le développement de la leucémie. J'ai également identifié deux suppresseurs de tumeurs portés par le chromosome X, MED12 et USP9X, qui n’avaient jamais été associés à la LAL-T auparavant et qui représentent un intérêt particulier étant donné le débalancement de l'incidence en fonction du sexe (ratio garçon:fille =1.22). Enfin, grâce à l’étude longitudinale de patients LAL-B ayant subi une ou plusieurs rechutes, j'ai analysé l'architecture et l'évolution clonales des tumeurs. J’ai ainsi identifié 2 profils évolutifs distincts gouvernant les rechutes précoces et tardives: d'un côté, une dynamique élevée alimentée par un dysfonctionnement des mécanismes de réparation de l'ADN et conduisant à l'émergence rapide de clones mieux adaptés – de l'autre, une dynamique réduite, quasi-inerte, suggérant l'échappement de cellules en dormance épargnée par la chimiothérapie. De manière générale, cette thèse a permis de contribuer à la caractérisation des déterminants génomiques qui constituent la variabilité inter- et intra-tumorale, participent au processus leucémogène et/ou aux mécanismes de résistance au traitement. Ces nouvelles connaissances contribueront à un raffinement de la stratification des patients et leur prise en charge personnalisée. / Acute lymphoblastic leukemia (ALL) is a complex disease with a multi-factorial etiology. It represents the most frequent pediatric cancer and despite a significant increase of survival rate, about 15% of the patients still do not respond to current treatment protocols and over 2/3 of survivors experience long-term treatment related side effects. To reduce these numbers, a better understanding of the underlying causes of ALL is needed. Through the analysis of next-generation sequencing (NGS) data obtained from the established Quebec cALL (QcALL) cohort of the Sainte-Justine hospital, I have been particularly concerned about the genomic determinants that contribute to different phases of ALL (predispositions, onset/progress and relapses). First, I developed an analysis tool (SNooPer) based on a machine learning algorithm integrating both normal and tumor NGS data of the patient to identify somatic mutations from low-pass sequencing. This tool, combined to in silico predictive analysis and to adequate functional validations, allowed us to characterize rare or recurrent events involved in the leukemogenesis process. Through the analysis of pre-B ALLs, I have been able to identify several rare driver genes which had never been associated to ALL before (ACD, DOT1L, HCFC1). The functional study of the identified mutation in ACD, a member of the shelterin complex, showed a concomitant lengthening of the telomeres and decreased apoptosis levels in leukemia cells. Besides the interest aroused by the discovery of these new drivers, I wanted to demonstrate the importance of low-frequency somatic events to establish the generally underestimated interindividual specificity and identify all cellular functions involved. During this work, I also identified new recurrent driver events in T-cell ALL (T-ALL), particularly among poorly characterized immature T-ALL patients. For example, I demonstrated the impact of a recurrent mutation in U2AF1, member of the spliceosome, on alternative splicing of cancer-relevant genes, further suggesting the importance of aberrant splicing in leukemogenesis. I also identified two new X-linked tumor suppressors, MED12 and USP9X, never associated to T-ALL before and obtained results supporting a potential role for these genes in the male-biased sex ratio observed in T-ALL (ratio male:female =1.22). Finally, through the longitudinal study of pre-B cALLs who suffered one or multiple relapses, I analyzed the clonal architecture and evolution of the tumors. I identified two distinct evolution patterns governing either early or late relapses: on one hand a highly dynamic pattern, sustained by a defect of DNA repair processes, illustrating the quick emergence of fitter clones - and on the other hand, a quasi-inert evolution pattern suggesting the escape from dormancy of neoplastic stem cells likely spared from initial cytoreductive therapy. Overall, this thesis contributed to the characterization of genomic determinants that constitute the inter- and intra-tumor variability, participate in leukemogenesis and/or in resistance mechanisms. This new knowledge will contribute to refine patient stratification and treatment.