Thesis (LLM)--Stellenbosch University, 2012. / Includes bibliography / ENGLISH ABSTRACT: The South African land question presents complex legal and social challenges. The legal aspects of land are inextricably linked to other socio-economic aspects, such as access to housing, healthcare, water and social security. The Constitution provides for land reform in the property clause - section 25. This clause, while seeking to redress the colonial land dispossessions, by means of a tripartite land reform programme, also protects the property rights of all. The different legs of the land reform programme are redistribution, which is aimed at enabling citizens to access land on an equitable basis; restitution, which sets out to restore property rights or grant equitable redress to those dispossessed of land as a result of past racially discriminatory laws or practices and finally tenure reform. Tenure reform is premised on transforming the landholding system of those with legally insecure tenure as a result of past racially discriminatory laws or practices or granting comparable redress. The primary focus of this thesis is on tenure security for black rural women in South Africa, while using the Namibian experience with regard of the same group as a comparison. Historically, before colonialism, landholding was governed by the customary law of the various tribes in South Africa. This landholding system underwent extensive change through the colonial era that ultimately led to a fragmented and disproportionate distribution of land based on race, with insecure land rights particularly in rural areas, where women are the majority. With the dawn of the Constitutional era, South Africa embarked upon a social justice project, based on a supreme Constitution, embodying human dignity, equality, non-racialism, accountability and the rule of law. Land reform forms part of the social project and is governed by the Constitution and influenced by both the civil and customary law. With the South African tenure context, policy documents, legislation and case law will be analysed. In this process the role of the stakeholders and other related factors, for example customary practices are also considered. The analysis indicates that case law has played a significant part in addressing women’s plight with regard to equality, tenure reform and abolishing suppressive legislative provisions and practices. It is furthermore clear that the different categories of women are affected differently by the overarching tenure and other related measures. For a legal comparative study, Namibia was chosen for the following reasons: (a) both South Africa and Namibia have a shared colonial and apartheid background; (b) both countries have a Constitutional foundation incorporating human rights and equality; and (c) both countries have embarked on land reform programmes. However, contrary to the South African position, both the Namibian Constitution and its National Land Policy are more gender-specific. Tenure reform is an on-going process in Namibia in terms of which specific categories of women have benefitted lately. To that end the gender inclined approach may be of specific value for the South African situation, in general, but in particular concerning black rural women. Consequently, particular recommendations, linked to the specific categories of women, are finally provided for the South African position, in light of the Namibian experience. / AFRIKAANSE OPSOMMING: Die Suid-Afrikaanse grondkwessie beliggaam ingewikkelde regs- en sosiale uitdagings. Die regsaspekte wat verband hou met grond is ook onlosmaaklik gekoppel aan sosio-ekonomiese kwessies, soos byvoorbeeld toegang to behuising, gesondheidsdienste, water en sosiale sekuriteit. Die Grondwet maak vir grondhervorming in die eiendomsklousule, artikel 25, voorsiening. Die eiendomsklousule beoog om koloniale grondontnemings (deur ‘n drie-ledige oorhoofse grondhervormingsprogram) aan te spreek en terselfdertyd eiendomsregte te beskerm. Die oorhoofse grondhervormingsprogram bestaan uit herverdeling, waarmee billike toegang tot grond vir alle burgers bewerkstellig word; restitusie, waarvolgens herstel (of ander billike vergoeding) vir persone en gemeenskappe wat grond en regte as gevolg van rasdiskriminerende maatreëls verloor het, bewerkstellig word en laastens grondbeheerhervorming. Grondbeheerhervorming behels die aanpas of opgradeer van grondbeheervorme (of die betaal van billike vergoeding) in gevalle waar regte onseker (of swak) is weens rasdiskriminerende maatreëls en praktyke van die verlede. Die hooffokus van die tesis is op die regsekerheid (al dan nie) van grondbeheer van swart landelike vrouens in Suid- Afrika, met die Namibiese ervaring as regsvergelykende komponent. Histories, voordat kolonialisme ingetree het, was grondbeheer deur die tradisionele inheemse reg van die verskillende gemeenskappe in Suid-Afrika gereguleer. Hierdie grondbeheersisteme het grootskaalse verandering gedurende die koloniale tydperk ondergaan. Dit het eindelik tot ‘n rasgebaseerde, gefragmenteerde sisteem gelei waarvan die verdeling van grond disproporsioneel was en die grondbeheervorme regsonseker, veral in die landelike gebiede waar vrouens die meerderheid van die bevolking uitmaak. Toe die grondwetlike era in Suid-Afrika aanbreek, is daar met ‘n sosiale geregtigheidprojek (heropbou en ontwikkeling) begin. Hierdie benadering is op die Grondwet gefundeer waarin menswaardigheid, gelykheid, nie-rassigheid, rekenskap en regsorde beliggaam is. Grondhervorming vorm deel van die oorhoofse projek en word deur die Grondwet bestuur en deur beide die nasionale en die Inheems reg beïnvloed. Met betrekking tot die Suid-Afrikaanse grondbeheeristeem word beleidsdokumente, wetgewing en regspraak geanaliseer. In hierdie proses word die rol van belanghebbendes en ander verwante aspekte, soos byvoorbeeld Inheemse partyke, ook oorweeg. Die analise dui aan dat dit veral ontwikkelings in regspraak is wat ‘n groot bydrae gelewer het om vrouens se stryd om gelykheid en sekerheid van grondbeheer te bevorder en wat gelei het tot die afskaffing van onderdrukkende wetgewende maatreëls en praktyke. Dit is verder ook duidelik dat verskillende kategorieë van vrouens verskillend deur die oorhoofse grondbeheer- en ander verwante maatreëls, geaffekteer word. Namibië is vir die regsvergelykende analise geïdentifiseer omdat (a) beide Suid- Afrika en Namibië ‘n koloniale en apartheidsgeskiedenis deel; (b) beide jurisdiksies ‘n grondwetlike basis het waarin menseregte en gelykheid beliggaam word; en (c) beide lande grondhervormingsprogramme van stapel gestuur het. In teenstelling met die Suid-Afrikaanse benadering, is die Namibiese Grondwet en die nasionale grondbeleid egter meer geslag-spesifiek. Grondbeheerhervorming in Namibië is ‘n aaneenlopende proses waaruit veral sekere kategorieë vrouens onlangs voordeel getrek het. Om daardie rede mag die geslag-spesifke benadering wat in Namibië gevolg word vir Suid-Afrika ook van waarde wees, nie net in die algemeen by grondbeheer nie, maar spesifiek ook met betrekking tot swart landelike vroue. In die lig van die Namibiese ervaring word daar ten slotte spesifieke aanbevelings tot die Suid-Afrikaanse sisteem, gekoppel aan bepaalde kategorieë van vroue, gemaak.

Στη μελέτη αυτή διερευνάται η επίδραση που ασκεί η μονιμότητα και η θητεία του διευθυντή σχολείου δευτεροβάθμιας εκπαίδευσης στη σχολική αποτελεσματικότητα και ενδυνάμωση. Αρχικά, με την επισκόπηση της υπάρχουσας βιβλιογραφίας, προσδιορίζονται οι όροι σχολική αποτελεσματικότητα και σχολική ενδυνάμωση, παρουσιάζονται οι μεταξύ τους διαφοροποιήσεις και τα σημεία σύγκλισης και αναλύονται οι παράγοντες ενδυνάμωσης του σύγχρονου σχολείου. Στη συνέχεια, εξετάζεται ο ρόλος του διευθυντή, σύμφωνα με τις θεωρητικές προσεγγίσεις της σχολικής αποτελεσματικότητας και της σχολικής ενδυνάμωσης και η επίδραση της μόνιμης και με θητεία διευθυντικής θέσης στην άσκηση των καθηκόντων που απορρέουν από το ρόλο του. Τέλος, με τη μέθοδο της ανάλυσης των γραπτών τεκμηρίων, επιχειρείται η παρουσίαση του θεσμικού πλαισίου που αφορά στο διευθυντή σχολείου δευτεροβάθμιας εκπαίδευσης, από τη θεμελίωση του εκπαιδευτικού συστήματος στην Ελλάδα μέχρι τις μέρες μας και ερευνάται η επίδραση που είχε η καθιέρωση της μονιμότητας και της θητείας του διευθυντή στη διαμόρφωση ενός αποτελεσματικού και ενδυναμωμένου σχολείου αυτής της βαθμίδας. / The present study seeks to explore the effects the tenure and non-tenure of the school leader in secondary education have on school effectiveness and school empowerment. Firstly, the terms school effectiveness and school empowerment are designated, their inter-differentiation and their points of convergence are presented and the factors that lead to the empowerment of the contemporary school are analyzed, according to the existing bibliography. Secondly, the role of the school leader, according to the theoretical approaches for school effectiveness and school empowerment, as well as the effect of the tenured and non-tenured position of a school leader on the duties deriving from his/her role, are examined. Finally, the presentation of the Legal framework with regard to the school leader in secondary education is attempted by the method of analysis of the written evidence, from the establishment of the Greek Educational system till nowadays and the effect of the establishment of the tenure and non-tenure of the school leader on the configuration of an effective and empowered school of this level, are also examined.

This study explores how land and natural resources in rural communities are accessed, used, and managed in livelihoods. In particular it examines first, crop field tenure, and livelihoods in natural resources. Second it explores factors that mediate access, use and control of land and natural resources within village communities. Empirical data are explored from two rural village communities of Kamena and St. Joseph located in the Northern and Copperbelt provinces of Zambia respectively. The study argues first that land and natural resource rights underpin land based livelihood activities of rural people, the most important of which are subsistence and cash crop farming, and the gathering and processing of common property resources. Second the thesis argues that land tenure reform impacts on the rural population as a whole and not just on cash crop farmers, and should thus situate the needs of farmers for secure tenure within the wider context of diverse rural household livelihood strategies. The study concludes that social differences (along the axes of wealth, gender and descent), traditional institutions (uxorilocal or virilocal marriage, polygamy, inheritance and succession) and government policy are central in determining access, use and control of land and natural resources in rural livelihoods. It is submitted that, rather than being replaced, customary land tenure, and traditional land administration structures in rural Zambia should be adapted to current social and economic realities in which individuals and households create their multiple livelihoods. Further, it is concluded that land tenure reform is not a sufficient condition for rural livelihood sustainability. Thus complementary agrarian measures to address the vulnerability context of rural households are recommended.

Comme dans presque tous les pays d'Afrique subsaharienne, la majorité de la population sénégalaise est rurale. Elle vit de l'agriculture ou d'activités qui en dépendent. Paradoxalement les investissements publics dans le secteur agricole restent très faibles, alors que l'insécurité alimentaire progresse. Pour faire face aux problèmes alimentaires, les pouvoirs publics multiplient les annonces de politiques agricoles, qui ne sont presque jamais suivies d'effets, parce que ne reposant pas sur des études précises et rigoureuses. A la place de politiques, il y a surtout des stratégies de gestion conjoncturelle des crises alimentaires. Dans ce contexte, nous avons cherché à comprendre les stratégies développées par la petite paysannerie, les dynamiques qui animent les exploitations agricoles familiales pour faire reculer l'insécurité alimentaire en milieu rural, et dans quelle mesure celles-ci peuvent contribuer à la souveraineté alimentaire du Sénégal. Cette question appelle celle de l'accès à une nourriture suffisante et celle de sa production. Ainsi, à travers notre étude que nous avons intitulée « Dynamiques paysannes, souveraineté alimentaire et marché mondial des produits agricoles : l'exemple du Sénégal », nous cherchons à répondre à une série de questions : 1. Comment les paysans sénégalais produisent-ils les biens nécessaires à l'alimentation et l'entretien de leur famille ? 2. Comment les paysans sénégalais sont-ils organisés autour des questions de la vie rurale ? 3. Quelle est l'influence du marché mondial de produits agricoles et de ses règles établies par l'Organisation mondiale du commerce (OMC), sur la disponibilité et l'accès aux produits alimentaires ? De quelle façon les biens alimentaires importés concurrencent-ils la culture de biens agricoles qu'il est possible de produire localement ? Nous avons ainsi consacré une première partie de notre étude au procès de production et à son évolution. En dehors des conditions climatiques, le contrôle effectif par les paysans, des moyens de production et de la tenure foncière, détermine en grande partie, les volumes de biens agricoles et alimentaires produits, ainsi que leur accès. Dans une seconde partie, nous avons analysé l'émergence et l'évolution des modes d'organisation paysanne et examiné leur influence sur la satisfaction des besoins alimentaires et les orientations des politiques publiques en matière agricole. Enfin, dans une troisième partie, nous avons essayé de mesurer l'impact des règles du commerce international sur les productions locales de biens agricoles et alimentaires. Ce travail nous a permis de tirer un certain nombre de conclusions. La majorité des paysans du Sénégal ne parvient plus à produire le volume d'aliments de base nécessaires pour nourrir et entretenir leur famille. Les moyens de production ont relativement peu évolué au cours des dernières décennies, même si la culture attelée et l'introduction de nouveaux matériels ont considérablement amélioré les conditions de production et diminué la pénibilité du travail. L'outil de production s'est dégradé. Il est vétuste et ce qu'il en reste ne survit que grâce à l'habileté des forgerons ruraux. Les connaissances traditionnelles comme les repères météorologiques conditionnent le choix des denrées cultivées et des superficies qui leur sont consacrées lorsque celles-ci sont disponibles. La recherche agronomique a permis d'obtenir des variétés homologuées de semences adaptées aux conditions pédologiques et climatiques. Mais elle demeure inefficace en ce sens que les moyens pour appliquer concrètement ses résultats sont absents et les paysans n'ont aucune maîtrise sur elle. La question foncière reste soumise à des tâtonnements qui sont le fait de sa complexité ; les croyances et les pratiques traditionnelles en la matière ne semblent pas encore prêtes à laisser la place à des règles modernes, ou le cas échéant, à s'y adapter. Les conditions de plus en plus sévères, qui sont ressenties avant tout dans le domaine alimentaire, ont mis en évidence les capacités de la paysannerie à s'adapter. Pour chaque situation nouvelle entrainant des difficultés supplémentaires, des solutions originales sont imaginées et mises en oeuvre par les paysans, leur permettant une adaptation insoupçonnée. La capacité des paysans à prendre en main leurs propres préoccupations a été mise en évidence par l'émergence d'organisations, de groupements, d'associations et d'unions dans tout l'espace rural du Sénégal. Sur le plan du commerce international des produits agricoles, la faiblesse du Tarif extérieur commun (TEC) de la CEDEAO a eu pour conséquence l'augmentation des volumes d'importations de biens qui peuvent être produits localement. Les règles de l'OMC, basées sur une conception ultralibérale du marché portent davantage préjudice aux produits agricoles et alimentaires de l'Afrique de l'Ouest. Les pays les plus vulnérables comme le Sénégal, en renforçant leurs ressources humaines en matière juridique, peuvent cependant exploiter les clauses qui leur permettent de mieux protéger les productions locales. Sur un plan plus global, et à défaut de sortir l'agriculture des accords de l'OMC, il est possible de réclamer avec la CEDEAO, la mise en place d'un autre Accord sur l'agriculture qui redéfinirait le dumping de manière à protéger les pays les plus vulnérables. / As in almost all SSA countries, the majority of the Senegalese population is rural. They earn their livelihoods from agriculture or activities that depend on it. Paradoxically, the public investment in agriculture remains very low, while food insecurity is progressing. To deal with food problems, the government multiplies announcements of agricultural policies, which are almost never followed up, because not based on specific and rigorous studies. Instead of policies, there are mostly management strategies cyclical food crises. In this context, we have sought to understand the strategies developed by the peasantry, the dynamics that drive family farms to reduce food insecurity in rural areas, and to what extent they can contribute to food sovereignty Senegal. This question calls for that of access to adequate food and that of its production. Thus, through our study we have entitled "Farming dynamics, food sovereignty and global market for agricultural products: the example of Senegal”, we try to answer a series of questions: 1. How do Senegalese farmers produce the goods needed to feed and care for their family? 2. How are Senegalese farmers organized around issues of rural life? 3. What is the influence of the world market of agricultural products and its rules established by the World Trade Organization (WTO) on the availability of and access to food? How do imported goods compete with food products that can be produced locally? We have devoted the first part of our study to the production process and its evolution. Apart from weather conditions, effective control by farmers of means of production and land tenure, largely determines the volumes of agricultural and food products as well as their access. The second part analyzes the emergence and evolution of modes of peasant organization and discusses their influence on the satisfaction of food needs and directions of public policy in agriculture. Finally, in the third part, we have tried to measure the impact of international trade rules on local production of agricultural goods and foodstuffs. This work has enabled us to draw some conclusions. The majority of farmers in Senegal can no longer produce the amount of basic foods needed to feed and support their families. The means of production have changed relatively little in recent decades, although animal traction and the introduction of new materials have greatly improved the conditions of production and reduced drudgery. The production tool has deteriorated. It is old and what is left survives only thanks to the ability of rural blacksmiths. Traditional knowledge and knowledge of weather condition the choice of crops grown and acreage devoted to them when they are available. Research in agriculture has yielded certified seed varieties adapted to soil and climatic conditions. But it remains ineffective in that the means for concretely applying its results are absent and the peasants have no control over it. The question of land remains subject to trial and error due to its complexity, traditional beliefs and practices in this area do not yet seem ready to give way to modern rules, or if necessary, adapt to them. More and more severe conditions felt primarily in the food sector have highlighted the capacity of the peasantry to adapt. For each new situation causing additional problems, novel solutions are devised and implemented by farmers, enabling them to adapt in an unexpected manner. Farmers' ability to take charge of their own concerns were highlighted by the emergence of organizations, groups, associations and unions throughout the rural areas of Senegal. As far as international trade in agricultural products is concerned, the weakness of the Common External Tariff (CET) of ECOWAS has resulted in increased volumes of imports of goods that can be produced locally. WTO rules, based on an ultra-liberal conception of the market, are more detrimental to West African agricultural and food products. By strengthening their human resources through legislation, more vulnerable countries such as Senegal, can, however, exploit the clauses that allow them to better protect local production. More globally, unless agriculture is removed from WTO agreements, it is possible to claim with ECOWAS, the implementation of another agreement on agriculture that would redefine dumping so as to protect the most vulnerable countries.

by Wong Yiu Fai Peter. / Thesis (M.B.A.)--Chinese University of Hong Kong, 1994. / Includes bibliographical references (leave 91). / ABSTRACT / TABLE OF CONTENTS / LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS / LIST OF TABLES / CHAPTER Page(s) / Chapter I. --- INTRODUCTION --- p.1-3 / Chapter II. --- THE THEORY OF PROPERTY RIGHTS --- p.4-8 / Chapter 1. --- Value of Good --- p.4 / Chapter 2. --- Nature of Property Rights --- p.4-5 / Chapter 3. --- Externalities and Property Rights --- p.5-6 / Chapter 4. --- The Exchange of Property Rights and Internalization --- p.6-7 / Chapter 5. --- The Development of Property Rights --- p.7-8 / Chapter III. --- the changing pattern of real property rights in china --- p.9-24 / Chapter 1. --- Historical Background --- p.9-14 / Chapter 2. --- The Propelling Forces For the Changein the System of Real Property Rights --- p.14-20 / Chapter i. --- Political Forces --- p.14-15 / Chapter ii. --- Economic Forces --- p.15-19 / Chapter iii. --- To Attract Foreign Investment --- p.19-20 / Chapter 3. --- Theoretical Justification and Concepts --- p.20-24 / Chapter i. --- Land Ownership --- p.20-21 / Chapter ii. --- Property Ownership --- p.21 / Chapter iii. --- Land Use Rights --- p.21-22 / Chapter iv. --- Theoretical Justification --- p.22-24 / Chapter IV --- LEGAL FRAMEWORK --- p.25-42 / Chapter 1. --- Enactment of new legislation to accommodate the change in real property rights --- p.25-27 / Chapter 2. --- Grant of Land Use Rights --- p.27-32 / Chapter 3. --- Transfer of Land Use Rights --- p.32-34 / Chapter 4. --- Lease of Land Use Rights --- p.34-35 / Chapter 5. --- Mortgage of Land Use Rights --- p.35-37 / Chapter 6. --- Termination of Land Use Rights --- p.37-38 / Chapter 7. --- Registration and Certificate of Rights --- p.38-40 / Chapter 8. --- Land Use Rights in Allotted Land --- p.40-42 / Chapter V --- DISPUTE RESOLUTION - LITIGATION AND ARBITRATION --- p.43-45 / Chapter 1. --- Litigation --- p.43-44 / Chapter i. --- Courts --- p.43 / Chapter ii. --- Judges --- p.43-44 / Chapter iii. --- Time and Costs --- p.44 / Chapter 2. --- Arbitration --- p.44-46 / Chapter i. --- International Aspect --- p.44-45 / Chapter ii. --- Time and Costs --- p.45-46 / Chapter 3. --- Dispute resolution and theory of property rights --- p.46 / Chapter VI --- PROBLEMS OF THE NEW LEGAL SYSTEM --- p.47-54 / Chapter 1. --- Complexity --- p.47-51 / Chapter i. --- "Various sources of laws, regulations and practices" --- p.47-48 / Chapter ii. --- Localism --- p.49 / Chapter iii. --- Great discretion of officials --- p.49-50 / Chapter iv. --- The myth of lawless China --- p.50-51 / Chapter 2. --- Immaturity --- p.51-53 / Chapter i. --- Immature Concepts --- p.51-52 / Chapter ii. --- Immature Systems --- p.52-53 / Chapter 3. --- Loopholes in the legal system --- p.53-54 / Chapter VII. --- conclusion --- p.55 / APPENDICES / Chapter 1. --- Table / Chapter 2. --- Sample Land Certificate / Chapter 3. --- An Extract of the relevant laws and regulations / Chapter 4. --- A Scale of Court Costs and Charge / Chapter 5. --- china International Economic and Trade Arbitration Commission Arbitration Rules / footnotes / bibliography

I examine whether policies that specifically target gender inequality improve the well-being of women and girls. In the first paper I study the impact of Ethiopia’s gendered land certification programs on household consumption patterns and infant and under-five mortality. After years of communism during which all land was nationalized, in 1998, Ethiopia embarked on a land tenure reform program. The reform began in Tigray region where land certificates were issued to household heads, who were largely male. In a second phase carried out during 2003-2005, three other regions, Amhara, Oromia, and SNNP, issued land certificates jointly to household heads and spouses, presenting variation in land tenure security by gender. I leverage this variation in land certification across regions and over time, to study whether inclusion of women yielded different effects. Using data from the Ethiopia Demographic and Household Surveys and longitudinal data from the Ethiopia Rural Household Survey I construct a treatment group of male-headed households in joint land certification regions and a comparison group of male-headed households in Tigray and study changes between the two groups after implementation of their respective land certification programs. I find that, compared to household-head land certification, joint certification was accompanied by increased household consumption of food, health care, women’s clothing, and girls’ clothing, and a decrease in girls’ infant and under-five mortality. These effects are largely restricted to households with illiterate mothers indicating that inclusion of women in land tenure reform empowered previously disempowered women who then used their improved position to allocate more household resources to their daughters. In the second paper, I examine the relationship between women's land ownership and participation in transactional sex, multiple sexual partnerships and unprotected sex, and HIV infection status. Using a sample of 5,511 women working in the agricultural sector from the 1998, 2003 and 2008–09 Kenya Demographic and Health Surveys, I find that women's land ownership is associated with fewer sexual partners in the past year and lower likelihood of engaging in transactional sex, indicators of reduced survival sex, but is not associated with unprotected sex with casual partners, indicating no difference in safer sex negotiation. Land ownership is also associated with reduced HIV infection among women most likely to engage in survival sex, i.e., women not under the household headship of a husband, but not among women living in husband-headed households, for whom increased negotiation for safer sex would be more relevant. The third paper examines the prevalence of son preference in families of East and South Asian origin living in the United States by investigating parental time investments in children using American Time Use Surveys. The results show that East and South Asian mothers spend more total time and more quality time with their young (aged 0-5 years) sons than with young daughters while fathers’ time with young children is gender neutral. I find gender specialization in time with children aged 6-17 with fathers spending more time with sons and mothers spending more time with daughters. These findings document health and social consequences of gender inequities within households. The findings also highlight that gender-sensitive policies have the potential to transform intrahousehold dynamics and help realize gender equality policy objectives.

The recognition of native title changed the foundations on which the Australian law of real property rested. However, the phrase

A high proportion of urban residents in Tanzanian cities are tenants who rent rooms in privately owned houses in unplanned settlements. However, in housing policy and in urban planning rental tenure gets very little attention. This study focuses on the reasons for and consequences of this discrepancy between policy and practice. Perspectives and actions of different actors involved in the housing provision process in Mwanza City, Tanzania, have been central to the research. The examined actors are residents in various housing tenure forms as well as government officials and representatives at different levels, from the neighbourhood level to UN-Habitat. The main methods have been interviews and discussions with actors as well as studies of policy documents, laws and plans. Among government actors, private rental tenure is largely seen as an issue between landlords and tenants. Tanzanian housing policy focuses more on land for housing than on shelter. This means that house-owners who control land have a more important role in urban planning and policies than tenants have. In Tanzania in general and in Mwanza in particular, housing policy focuses on residents’ involvement in upgrading unplanned areas by organising in Community Based Organisations. This means that owners who live for a longer period in an area benefit more from settlement improvements than tenants. Tenants are relatively mobile and do not take for granted that they will stay in the same house for long. This raises the question of tenants’ possibilities to influence as well as their rights as citizens as compared to that of owners. The question of citizens’ rights for dwellers in informal settlements has received increased attention during the last years in international housing policy discussions. There is an evident need to intensify and diversify this discussion.

This study examines whether there is an association between the length of the client-auditor relationship and audit quality, using absolute unexpected accruals estimated by industry as a measure of audit quality based on a modified Jones model. The study is motivated by the proposal on mandatory audit firm rotation for publicly traded companies from the European Commission, which is based on the notion that longer auditor firm tenure creates a familiarity threat which reduces the audit quality. Both the relation between audit quality and auditor partner tenure and audit firm tenure is examined in this study, using multivariate regression controlling for auditor type (Big 4 versus non-Big 4), signing auditors (one versus two auditors), firm size, profitability, leverage and age. There is a significant negative relationship between audit quality and audit partner tenure when only companies employing Big 4 is tested, which indicate that auditors constrain managements extreme accounting measures with longer tenure. The results provide no significant evidence of an increase in the absolute unexpected accruals with audit firm tenure, when only Big 4 companies are tested. The results also overall suggest that the audit quality is lower for shorter tenure relative to longer tenure, which is consistent with previous studies. The results of this study therefore implies that under the current regime with no obligation of firm rotation, longer audit tenure is on average associated with auditors in greater extent constraining managements extreme accounting choices. The results therefore do not support the call for mandatory rotation. However, the majority of the regression results were not statistically significant, which limits the possibility to apply these results to a population outside the scope of this study. / Revisorers oberoende i förhållande till sina klienter har under de senaste åren med anledning av finanskrisen samt de omtalade revisionsskandalerna medfört diskussioner om huruvida den befintliga lagstiftningen som reglerar revisorers arbete är tillräcklig. Det har även diskuterats om det behöver vidtas ytterligare åtgärder för att säkerställa revisorernas oberoende. Som ett led att stärka revisorernas oberoende har Europeiska Kommissionen lagt på förslag att införa obligatorisk byrårotation för publika bolag. Det har redan införts obligatorisk revisorsrotation. Dock anser emellertid kommissionen att detta inte är tillräckligt, då långa revisionsbyråuppdrag kan vara skadliga för oberoendet på grund av att det med tiden kan skapas en vänskaplig relation mellan revisionsbyrån och klienten. Majoriteten av tidigare forskning på området har emellertid inte funnit stöd för att varken långa partneruppdrag eller byråuppdrag skulle vara skadliga för revisionskvaliteten som omfattar revisorers oberoende. I studien undersöks således huruvida det finns ett samband mellan längden på revisionsuppdraget och revisionskvaliteten. Studiens syfte är därmed att undersöka om längden på partneruppdraget och byråuppdraget påverkar revisionskvaliteten. Utifrån studiens resultat syftar studien även till att kommentera rimligheten i Europeiska Kommissionens förslag på införandet av obligatorisk byrårotation. Studien utgår ifrån ett intressentperspektiv, eftersom det i slutändan är intressenter såsom aktieägare, investerare, långivare, anställda, kunder och staten som drabbas av de negativa konsekvenserna av att revisorer inte är oberoende i sin granskning, då tillförlitligheten till årsredovisningarna minskar.    De teoretiska utgångspunkterna baseras på tidigare forskning inom revision och företagsekonomi. I studien tillämpas teorier och tidigare forskningsresultat som främst gäller revisionskvalitet, vinstmanipulering och längden på partner- samt byråuppdraget i syfte att beskriva den befintliga forskningen som vid tiden för studien behandlar ämnet. En kvantitativ metod med ett deduktivt angreppssätt efter den positivistiska synssättet har använts för att på bästa möjliga sätt undersöka studiens uppställda problem och syfte. Urvalet består av publika bolag börsnoterade på NASDAQ OMX Nordics Large, Mid och Small Cap listor. I linje med tidigare studier används oväntade periodiseringar beräknad utifrån branschtillhörighet som mått på revisionskvalitet.    Resultaten visar att partnerlängden är signifikant negativt associerad med de absoluta oväntade periodiseringarna när endast företag reviderade av Big 4 studeras, vilket indikerar att revisorer begränsar företagsledningens möjlighet att genomföra extrema redovisningsbeslut i takt med att längden på partneruppdraget ökar. Resultaten ger inget stöd för att långa byråuppdrag påverkar revisionskvaliteten negativt, detta då inga signifikanta samband observerades. Studiens resultat visar även att korta revisionsuppdrag överlag har högre oväntade periodiseringar i förhållande till längre uppdrag. Studien ger således inget stöd för införandet av obligatorisk byrårotation.

This study seeks to investigate the origin of land injustices in South Africa. The root cause of land injustices, as will be shown in the introduction, is located in human shortcomings of greed, which theologically is termed sin. All the contributory systems mentioned such as Colonisation and Apartheid are a direct result of sin. No human being is immune from sin, whatever name one may use to describe that shortcoming. The approach adopted throughout the dissertation is an inductive one which first presents the reality as it is and secondly make an analysis of the situation. In this regard chapter two focuses on the dire needs of land by Africans both in Cradock and the country as a whole. Chapter three examines the concept of ubulungisa - justice as an appropriate method for Christians (in South Africa) to address the issue of land injustice. Chapter four acknowledges that the problem of land injustice is global in scope. It is suggested that the experiences of other countries that have gone through similar experiences have much to offer South Africa: It is also emphasised that the lessons learnt must be adapted to our situation. Chapter five examines the land policies of three of the dominant South African political parties that are involved in the present Government. These are; the African National Congress, the National Party and the Pan Africanist Congress of Azania. At the same time, a brief critique of their land policies is conducted. This chapter closes by suggesting that an approach that allows all citizens of the country to make a contribution be adopted. Chapter six presents a challenge to the Church to accept its role and responsibility. The author submits that the Church has a pastoral and prophetic role to play. The church is challenged to show its commitment to ministry on land injustices by setting an example in the use of its own land, whilst at the same time it challenges the State. This is so because the church has a task to be the conscience of the nation by 'being the voice of the voiceless.' Chapter seven, summarises the findings of the dissertation and concludes by suggesting six fundamental ethical principles regarding justice in the land that are worth considering. / Thesis (M.Th.)-University of Natal, Pietermaritzburg, 1998.