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Reconocimiento de gestos corporales, utilizando procesamiento digital de imágenes para activar sistema de alarmaMoreno Moreno, Flavio David January 2015 (has links)
La investigación realizada a los sistemas de seguridad electrónica de edificios, plantea como objetivo principal el reconocimiento de tres gestos de un lenguaje corporal del personal de vigilancia, y la consecuente activación de alarma en forma automática. Inicialmente se realizó una encuesta dirigida a las administraciones y personal de edificios, para saber cuales eran las ocurrencias que vulneraban la seguridad de un edificio multifamiliar, luego se observaron y analizaron las imágenes capturadas por una cámara de vigilancia ubicada en la recepción, identificando las ocurrencias más vulnerables y gestos asociados a dichos eventos; se seleccionaron tres gestos que en forma inconsciente realizaba el personal de vigilancia ante dichas situaciones. A determinados cuadros que comprenden estas imágenes se le aplicaron técnicas de procesamiento espacial, con ayuda de una iluminación artificial que era más intensa en la parte posterior del sujeto de análisis, consiguiéndose la definición de una silueta binarizada en el entorno Matlab, técnicas como selección del plano rojo, plano de bits más significativo, invertir imagen y transformaciones morfológicas tipo cerradura, definieron una silueta que ayudó a desarrollar un algoritmo matemático para generar una señal eléctrica en el puerto serial USB del ordenador, donde se conectó físicamente una plataforma de hardware Arduino que activa la alarma. La elección de esta plataforma se debió a que Matlab cuenta con un grupo de instrucciones para Arduino, con el objetivo de lograr una comunicación sincronizada entre ordenador e interface.
Las técnicas utilizadas reconocieron 62,5% de los eventos descritos en las encuestas realizadas y que no son mencionadas en temas de investigación similar. Para lograr el objetivo fue necesario analizar un cuadro por segundo.
The research poses as their main objective the three gestures recognition of a body language of surveillance personnel and the consequent activation of alarm automatically. It was initially carried out a survey of the administration and the offices of the buildings to know which were the occurrences that violate the security of a multi-family building, then were observed and analyzed images captured by a surveillance camera located in the reception, identifying the most vulnerable occurrences and gestures associated with these events; were selected three gestures that unconsciously performs surveillance personnel before such situations; to certain pictures that comprise these images were applied spatial processing techniques, with the help of an artificial lighting that was more intense in the back of the subject of analysis, getting the definition of a silhouette binarized in the Matlab environment, techniques such as plane selection red, more significant bit plane, to invest an image and convolution close type, defined a silhouette that allowed to develop a mathematical algorithm that generated an electrical signal in USB serial port of the computer, where it is physically connected a hardware platform Arduino that active the alarm.This platform choice is due to the fact that Matlab has a group of instructions for Arduino, achieving an orderly communication between computer and interface.
The techniques used recognized 62.5 % of the events described in the surveys carried out and which aren’t mentioned in similar research topics. To achieve the objective was necessary to analyze a picture per second.
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Česko-německý fond budoucnosti jako instrument veřejné diplomacie / Czech-German future fund as an instrument of the public diplomacyTížková, Lucie January 2017 (has links)
This diploma thesis examines changes, which the Czech-German Future Fund went through during its almost 20 years of functioning. The first part the author dedicated to theoretical concepts, which shed light on study of the Czech-German Future Fund. These theoretical concepts are reconciliation and public diplomacy. Thereafter are in tis thesis described efforts to compensate victims of National Socialism in Czechoslovakia and in the Czech Republic. This part of thesis is followed by description of the Czech-German Future Fund and its history. Based on this German-Czech Declaration of Mutual Relations and their Future Development of 1997 was the fund's mission to compensate victims of National Socialism, who didn't receive a compensation until then. The fund fulfilled this mission after 10 years of its function and also went through by many changes during almost 10 years of its functioning. The author describes these changes on which is based description of the project policy development of Czech-German Future Fund. After that the diploma thesis concentrates on changes in individual fund project groups, which are supported by the fund. These changes have an impact on financial character of individual project groups, on change of their structure or on change of the place, where are individual...
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Slovinské národní divadlo v Lublani / Slovene National Theatre in LjubljanaHýl, Petr January 2009 (has links)
SLOVENE NATIONAL THEATRE IN LJUBLJANA Author Report Of The Diploma Work Author: Bc. Petr Hýl Supervisor: doc. ing. arch. Zdeněk Makovský
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Zero-Error capacity of quantum channels. / Capacidade Erro-Zero de canais quânticos.MEDEIROS, Rex Antonio da Costa. 01 August 2018 (has links)
Submitted by Johnny Rodrigues (johnnyrodrigues@ufcg.edu.br) on 2018-08-01T21:11:37Z
No. of bitstreams: 1
REX ANTONIO DA COSTA MEDEIROS - TESE PPGEE 2008..pdf: 1089371 bytes, checksum: ea0c95501b938e0d466779a06faaa4f6 (MD5) / Made available in DSpace on 2018-08-01T21:11:37Z (GMT). No. of bitstreams: 1
REX ANTONIO DA COSTA MEDEIROS - TESE PPGEE 2008..pdf: 1089371 bytes, checksum: ea0c95501b938e0d466779a06faaa4f6 (MD5)
Previous issue date: 2008-05-09 / Nesta tese, a capacidade erro-zero de canais discretos sem memória é generalizada para
canais quânticos. Uma nova capacidade para a transmissão de informação clássica através de canais quânticos é proposta. A capacidade erro-zero de canais quânticos (CEZQ) é definida como sendo a máxima quantidade de informação por uso do canal que pode ser enviada através de um canal quântico ruidoso, considerando uma probabilidade de erro igual a zero. O protocolo de comunicação restringe palavras-código a produtos tensoriais de estados quânticos de entrada, enquanto que medições coletivas entre várias saídas do canal são permitidas. Portanto, o protocolo empregado é similar ao protocolo de Holevo-Schumacher-Westmoreland. O problema de encontrar a CEZQ é reformulado usando elementos da teoria de grafos. Esta definição equivalente é usada para demonstrar propriedades de famílias de estados quânticos e medições que atingem a CEZQ. É mostrado
que a capacidade de um canal quântico num espaço de Hilbert de dimensão d pode sempre ser alcançada usando famílias compostas de, no máximo,d estados puros. Com relação às medições, demonstra-se que medições coletivas de von Neumann são necessárias e suficientes para alcançar a capacidade. É discutido se a CEZQ é uma generalização não trivial da capacidade erro-zero clássica. O termo não trivial refere-se a existência de canais quânticos para os quais a CEZQ só pode ser alcançada através de famílias de estados quânticos não-ortogonais e usando códigos de comprimento maior ou igual a dois. É investigada a CEZQ de alguns canais quânticos. É mostrado que o problema de calcular a CEZQ de canais clássicos-quânticos é puramente clássico. Em particular, é exibido um canal quântico para o qual conjectura-se que a CEZQ só pode ser alcançada usando uma família de estados quânticos não-ortogonais. Se a conjectura é verdadeira, é possível calcular o valor exato da capacidade e construir um código de bloco quântico que alcança a capacidade. Finalmente, é demonstrado que a CEZQ é limitada superiormente pela capacidade de Holevo-Schumacher-Westmoreland.
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Charge transport and energy levels in organic semiconductors / Ladungstransport und Energieniveaus in organischen HalbleiternWidmer, Johannes 25 November 2014 (has links) (PDF)
Organic semiconductors are a new key technology for large-area and flexible thin-film electronics. They are deposited as thin films (sub-nanometer to micrometer) on large-area substrates. The technologically most advanced applications are organic light emitting diodes (OLEDs) and organic photovoltaics (OPV). For the improvement of performance and efficiency, correct modeling of the electronic processes in the devices is essential. Reliable characterization and validation of the electronic properties of the materials is simultaneously required for the successful optimization of devices. Furthermore, understanding the relations between material structures and their key characteristics opens the path for innovative material and device design.
In this thesis, two material characterization methods are developed, respectively refined and applied: a novel technique for measuring the charge carrier mobility μ and a way to determine the ionization energy IE or the electron affinity EA of an organic semiconductor.
For the mobility measurements, a new evaluation approach for space-charge limited current (SCLC) measurements in single carrier devices is developed. It is based on a layer thickness variation of the material under investigation. In the \"potential mapping\" (POEM) approach, the voltage as a function of the device thickness V(d) at a given current density is shown to coincide with the spatial distribution of the electric potential V(x) in the thickest device. On this basis, the mobility is directly obtained as function of the electric field F and the charge carrier density n. The evaluation is model-free, i.e. a model for μ(F, n) to fit the measurement data is not required, and the measurement is independent of a possible injection barrier or potential drop at non-optimal contacts. The obtained μ(F, n) function describes the effective average mobility of free and trapped charge carriers. This approach realistically describes charge transport in energetically disordered materials, where a clear differentiation between trapped and free charges is impossible or arbitrary.
The measurement of IE and EA is performed by characterizing solar cells at varying temperature T. In suitably designed devices based on a bulk heterojunction (BHJ), the open-circuit voltage Voc is a linear function of T with negative slope in the whole measured range down to 180K. The extrapolation to temperature zero V0 = Voc(T → 0K) is confirmed to equal the effective gap Egeff, i.e. the difference between the EA of the acceptor and the IE of the donor. The successive variation of different components of the devices and testing their influence on V0 verifies the relation V0 = Egeff. On this basis, the IE or EA of a material can be determined in a BHJ with a material where the complementary value is known. The measurement is applied to a number of material combinations, confirming, refining, and complementing previously reported values from ultraviolet photo electron spectroscopy (UPS) and inverse photo electron spectroscopy (IPES).
These measurements are applied to small molecule organic semiconductors, including mixed layers. In blends of zinc-phthalocyanine (ZnPc) and C60, the hole mobility is found to be thermally and field activated, as well as increasing with charge density. Varying the mixing ratio, the hole mobility is found to increase with increasing ZnPc content, while the effective gap stays unchanged. A number of further materials and material blends are characterized with respect to hole and electron mobility and the effective gap, including highly diluted donor blends, which have been little investigated before. In all materials, a pronounced field activation of the mobility is observed. The results enable an improved detailed description of the working principle of organic solar cells and support the future design of highly efficient and optimized devices. / Organische Halbleiter sind eine neue Schlüsseltechnologie für großflächige und flexible Dünnschichtelektronik. Sie werden als dünne Materialschichten (Sub-Nanometer bis Mikrometer) auf großflächige Substrate aufgebracht. Die technologisch am weitesten fortgeschrittenen Anwendungen sind organische Leuchtdioden (OLEDs) und organische Photovoltaik (OPV). Zur weiteren Steigerung von Leistungsfähigkeit und Effizienz ist die genaue Modellierung elektronischer Prozesse in den Bauteilen von grundlegender Bedeutung. Für die erfolgreiche Optimierung von Bauteilen ist eine zuverlässige Charakterisierung und Validierung der elektronischen Materialeigenschaften gleichermaßen erforderlich. Außerdem eröffnet das Verständnis der Zusammenhänge zwischen Materialstruktur und -eigenschaften einen Weg für innovative Material- und Bauteilentwicklung.
Im Rahmen dieser Dissertation werden zwei Methoden für die Materialcharakterisierung entwickelt, verfeinert und angewandt: eine neuartige Methode zur Messung der Ladungsträgerbeweglichkeit μ und eine Möglichkeit zur Bestimmung der Ionisierungsenergie IE oder der Elektronenaffinität EA eines organischen Halbleiters.
Für die Beweglichkeitsmessungen wird eine neue Auswertungsmethode für raumladungsbegrenzte Ströme (SCLC) in unipolaren Bauteilen entwickelt. Sie basiert auf einer Schichtdickenvariation des zu charakterisierenden Materials. In einem Ansatz zur räumlichen Abbildung des elektrischen Potentials (\"potential mapping\", POEM) wird gezeigt, dass das elektrische Potential als Funktion der Schichtdicke V(d) bei einer gegebenen Stromdichte dem räumlichen Verlauf des elektrischen Potentials V(x) im dicksten Bauteil entspricht. Daraus kann die Beweglichkeit als Funktion des elektrischen Felds F und der Ladungsträgerdichte n berechnet werden. Die Auswertung ist modellfrei, d.h. ein Modell zum Angleichen der Messdaten ist für die Berechnung von μ(F, n) nicht erforderlich. Die Messung ist außerdem unabhängig von einer möglichen Injektionsbarriere oder einer Potentialstufe an nicht-idealen Kontakten. Die gemessene Funktion μ(F, n) beschreibt die effektive durchschnittliche Beweglichkeit aller freien und in Fallenzuständen gefangenen Ladungsträger. Dieser Zugang beschreibt den Ladungstransport in energetisch ungeordneten Materialien realistisch, wo eine klare Unterscheidung zwischen freien und Fallenzuständen nicht möglich oder willkürlich ist.
Die Messung von IE und EA wird mithilfe temperaturabhängiger Messungen an Solarzellen durchgeführt. In geeigneten Bauteilen mit einem Mischschicht-Heteroübergang (\"bulk heterojunction\" BHJ) ist die Leerlaufspannung Voc im gesamten Messbereich oberhalb 180K eine linear fallende Funktion der Temperatur T. Es kann bestätigt werden, dass die Extrapolation zum Temperaturnullpunkt V0 = Voc(T → 0K) mit der effektiven Energielücke Egeff , d.h. der Differenz zwischen EA des Akzeptor-Materials und IE des Donator-Materials, übereinstimmt. Die systematische schrittweise Variation einzelner Bestandteile der Solarzellen und die Überprüfung des Einflusses auf V0 bestätigen die Beziehung V0 = Egeff. Damit kann die IE oder EA eines Materials bestimmt werden, indem man es in einem BHJ mit einem Material kombiniert, dessen komplementärer Wert bekannt ist. Messungen per Ultraviolett-Photoelektronenspektroskopie (UPS) und inverser Photoelektronenspektroskopie (IPES) werden damit bestätigt, präzisiert und ergänzt.
Die beiden entwickelten Messmethoden werden auf organische Halbleiter aus kleinen Molekülen einschließlich Mischschichten angewandt. In Mischschichten aus Zink-Phthalocyanin (ZnPc) und C60 wird eine Löcherbeweglichkeit gemessen, die sowohl thermisch als auch feld- und ladungsträgerdichteaktiviert ist. Wenn das Mischverhältnis variiert wird, steigt die Löcherbeweglichkeit mit zunehmendem ZnPc-Anteil, während die effektive Energielücke unverändert bleibt. Verschiedene weitere Materialien und Materialmischungen werden hinsichtlich Löcher- und Elektronenbeweglichkeit sowie ihrer Energielücke charakterisiert, einschließlich bisher wenig untersuchter hochverdünnter Donator-Systeme. In allen Materialien wird eine deutliche Feldaktivierung der Beweglichkeit beobachtet. Die Ergebnisse ermöglichen eine verbesserte Beschreibung der detaillierten Funktionsweise organischer Solarzellen und unterstützen die künftige Entwicklung hocheffizienter und optimierter Bauteile.
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Charge transport and energy levels in organic semiconductorsWidmer, Johannes 02 October 2014 (has links)
Organic semiconductors are a new key technology for large-area and flexible thin-film electronics. They are deposited as thin films (sub-nanometer to micrometer) on large-area substrates. The technologically most advanced applications are organic light emitting diodes (OLEDs) and organic photovoltaics (OPV). For the improvement of performance and efficiency, correct modeling of the electronic processes in the devices is essential. Reliable characterization and validation of the electronic properties of the materials is simultaneously required for the successful optimization of devices. Furthermore, understanding the relations between material structures and their key characteristics opens the path for innovative material and device design.
In this thesis, two material characterization methods are developed, respectively refined and applied: a novel technique for measuring the charge carrier mobility μ and a way to determine the ionization energy IE or the electron affinity EA of an organic semiconductor.
For the mobility measurements, a new evaluation approach for space-charge limited current (SCLC) measurements in single carrier devices is developed. It is based on a layer thickness variation of the material under investigation. In the \"potential mapping\" (POEM) approach, the voltage as a function of the device thickness V(d) at a given current density is shown to coincide with the spatial distribution of the electric potential V(x) in the thickest device. On this basis, the mobility is directly obtained as function of the electric field F and the charge carrier density n. The evaluation is model-free, i.e. a model for μ(F, n) to fit the measurement data is not required, and the measurement is independent of a possible injection barrier or potential drop at non-optimal contacts. The obtained μ(F, n) function describes the effective average mobility of free and trapped charge carriers. This approach realistically describes charge transport in energetically disordered materials, where a clear differentiation between trapped and free charges is impossible or arbitrary.
The measurement of IE and EA is performed by characterizing solar cells at varying temperature T. In suitably designed devices based on a bulk heterojunction (BHJ), the open-circuit voltage Voc is a linear function of T with negative slope in the whole measured range down to 180K. The extrapolation to temperature zero V0 = Voc(T → 0K) is confirmed to equal the effective gap Egeff, i.e. the difference between the EA of the acceptor and the IE of the donor. The successive variation of different components of the devices and testing their influence on V0 verifies the relation V0 = Egeff. On this basis, the IE or EA of a material can be determined in a BHJ with a material where the complementary value is known. The measurement is applied to a number of material combinations, confirming, refining, and complementing previously reported values from ultraviolet photo electron spectroscopy (UPS) and inverse photo electron spectroscopy (IPES).
These measurements are applied to small molecule organic semiconductors, including mixed layers. In blends of zinc-phthalocyanine (ZnPc) and C60, the hole mobility is found to be thermally and field activated, as well as increasing with charge density. Varying the mixing ratio, the hole mobility is found to increase with increasing ZnPc content, while the effective gap stays unchanged. A number of further materials and material blends are characterized with respect to hole and electron mobility and the effective gap, including highly diluted donor blends, which have been little investigated before. In all materials, a pronounced field activation of the mobility is observed. The results enable an improved detailed description of the working principle of organic solar cells and support the future design of highly efficient and optimized devices.:1. Introduction
2. Organic semiconductors and devices
2.1. Organic semiconductors
2.1.1. Conjugated π system
2.1.2. Small molecules and polymers
2.1.3. Disorder in amorphous materials
2.1.4. Polarons
2.1.5. Polaron hopping
2.1.6. Fermi-Dirac distribution and Fermi level
2.1.7. Quasi-Fermi levels
2.1.8. Trap states
2.1.9. Doping
2.1.10. Excitons
2.2. Interfaces and blend layers
2.2.1. Interface dipoles
2.2.2. Energy level bending
2.2.3. Injection from metal into semiconductor, and extraction
2.2.4. Excitons at interfaces
2.3. Charge transport and recombination in organic semiconductors
2.3.1. Drift transport
2.3.2. Charge carrier mobility
2.3.3. Thermally activated transport
2.3.4. Diffusion transport
2.3.5. Drift-diffusion transport
2.3.6. Space-charge limited current
2.3.7. Recombination
2.4. Mobility measurement
2.4.1. SCLC and TCLC
2.4.2. Time of flight
2.4.3. Organic field effect transistors
2.4.4. CELIV
2.5. Organic solar cells
2.5.1. Exciton diffusion towards the interface
2.5.2. Dissociation of CT states
2.5.3. CT recombination
2.5.4. Flat and bulk heterojunction
2.5.5. Transport layers
2.5.6. Thin film optics
2.5.7. Current-voltage characteristics and equivalent circuit
2.5.8. Solar cell efficiency
2.5.9. Limits of efficiency
2.5.10. Correct solar cell characterization
2.5.11. The \"O-Factor\"
3. Materials and experimental methods
3.1. Materials
3.2. Device fabrication and layout
3.2.1. Layer deposition
3.2.2. Encapsulation
3.2.3. Homogeneity of layer thickness on a wafer
3.2.4. Device layout
3.3. Characterization
3.3.1. Electrical characterization
3.3.2. Sample illumination
3.3.3. Temperature dependent characterization
3.3.4. UPS
4. Simulations
5.1. Design of single carrier devices
5.1.1. General design requirements
5.1.2. Single carrier devices for space-charge limited current
5.1.3. Ohmic regime
5.1.4. Design of injection and extraction layers
5.2. Advanced evaluation of SCLC – potential mapping
5.2.1. Potential mapping by thickness variation
5.2.2. Further evaluation of the transport profile
5.2.3. Injection into and extraction from single carrier devices
5.2.4. Majority carrier approximation
5.3. Proof of principle: POEM on simulated data
5.3.1. Constant mobility
5.3.2. Field dependent mobility
5.3.3. Field and charge density activated mobility
5.3.4. Conclusion
5.4. Application: Transport characterization in organic semiconductors
5.4.1. Hole transport in ZnPc:C60
5.4.2. Hole transport in ZnPc:C60 – temperature variation
5.4.3. Hole transport in ZnPc:C60 – blend ratio variation
5.4.4. Hole transport in ZnPc:C70
5.4.5. Hole transport in neat ZnPc
5.4.6. Hole transport in F4-ZnPc:C60
5.4.7. Hole transport in DCV-5T-Me33:C60
5.4.8. Electron transport in ZnPc:C60
5.4.9. Electron transport in neat Bis-HFl-NTCDI
5.5. Summary and discussion of the results
5.5.1. Phthalocyanine:C60 blends
5.5.2. DCV-5T-Me33:C60
5.5.3. Conclusion
6. Organic solar cell characteristics: the influence of temperature
6.1. ZnPc:C60 solar cells
6.1.1. Temperature variation
6.1.2. Illumination intensity variation
6.2. Voc in flat and bulk heterojunction organic solar cells
6.2.1. Qualitative difference in Voc(I, T)
6.2.2. Interpretation of Voc(I, T)
6.3. BHJ stoichiometry variation
6.3.1. Voc upon variation of stoichiometry and contact layer
6.3.2. V0 upon stoichiometry variation
6.3.3. Low donor content stoichiometry
6.3.4. Conclusion from stoichiometry variation
6.4. Transport material variation
6.4.1. HTM variation
6.4.2. ETM variation
6.5. Donor:acceptor material variation
6.5.1. Donor variation
6.5.2. Acceptor variation
6.6. Conclusion
7. Summary and outlook
7.1. Summary
7.2. Outlook
A. Appendix
A.1. Energy pay-back of this thesis
A.2. Tables and registers / Organische Halbleiter sind eine neue Schlüsseltechnologie für großflächige und flexible Dünnschichtelektronik. Sie werden als dünne Materialschichten (Sub-Nanometer bis Mikrometer) auf großflächige Substrate aufgebracht. Die technologisch am weitesten fortgeschrittenen Anwendungen sind organische Leuchtdioden (OLEDs) und organische Photovoltaik (OPV). Zur weiteren Steigerung von Leistungsfähigkeit und Effizienz ist die genaue Modellierung elektronischer Prozesse in den Bauteilen von grundlegender Bedeutung. Für die erfolgreiche Optimierung von Bauteilen ist eine zuverlässige Charakterisierung und Validierung der elektronischen Materialeigenschaften gleichermaßen erforderlich. Außerdem eröffnet das Verständnis der Zusammenhänge zwischen Materialstruktur und -eigenschaften einen Weg für innovative Material- und Bauteilentwicklung.
Im Rahmen dieser Dissertation werden zwei Methoden für die Materialcharakterisierung entwickelt, verfeinert und angewandt: eine neuartige Methode zur Messung der Ladungsträgerbeweglichkeit μ und eine Möglichkeit zur Bestimmung der Ionisierungsenergie IE oder der Elektronenaffinität EA eines organischen Halbleiters.
Für die Beweglichkeitsmessungen wird eine neue Auswertungsmethode für raumladungsbegrenzte Ströme (SCLC) in unipolaren Bauteilen entwickelt. Sie basiert auf einer Schichtdickenvariation des zu charakterisierenden Materials. In einem Ansatz zur räumlichen Abbildung des elektrischen Potentials (\"potential mapping\", POEM) wird gezeigt, dass das elektrische Potential als Funktion der Schichtdicke V(d) bei einer gegebenen Stromdichte dem räumlichen Verlauf des elektrischen Potentials V(x) im dicksten Bauteil entspricht. Daraus kann die Beweglichkeit als Funktion des elektrischen Felds F und der Ladungsträgerdichte n berechnet werden. Die Auswertung ist modellfrei, d.h. ein Modell zum Angleichen der Messdaten ist für die Berechnung von μ(F, n) nicht erforderlich. Die Messung ist außerdem unabhängig von einer möglichen Injektionsbarriere oder einer Potentialstufe an nicht-idealen Kontakten. Die gemessene Funktion μ(F, n) beschreibt die effektive durchschnittliche Beweglichkeit aller freien und in Fallenzuständen gefangenen Ladungsträger. Dieser Zugang beschreibt den Ladungstransport in energetisch ungeordneten Materialien realistisch, wo eine klare Unterscheidung zwischen freien und Fallenzuständen nicht möglich oder willkürlich ist.
Die Messung von IE und EA wird mithilfe temperaturabhängiger Messungen an Solarzellen durchgeführt. In geeigneten Bauteilen mit einem Mischschicht-Heteroübergang (\"bulk heterojunction\" BHJ) ist die Leerlaufspannung Voc im gesamten Messbereich oberhalb 180K eine linear fallende Funktion der Temperatur T. Es kann bestätigt werden, dass die Extrapolation zum Temperaturnullpunkt V0 = Voc(T → 0K) mit der effektiven Energielücke Egeff , d.h. der Differenz zwischen EA des Akzeptor-Materials und IE des Donator-Materials, übereinstimmt. Die systematische schrittweise Variation einzelner Bestandteile der Solarzellen und die Überprüfung des Einflusses auf V0 bestätigen die Beziehung V0 = Egeff. Damit kann die IE oder EA eines Materials bestimmt werden, indem man es in einem BHJ mit einem Material kombiniert, dessen komplementärer Wert bekannt ist. Messungen per Ultraviolett-Photoelektronenspektroskopie (UPS) und inverser Photoelektronenspektroskopie (IPES) werden damit bestätigt, präzisiert und ergänzt.
Die beiden entwickelten Messmethoden werden auf organische Halbleiter aus kleinen Molekülen einschließlich Mischschichten angewandt. In Mischschichten aus Zink-Phthalocyanin (ZnPc) und C60 wird eine Löcherbeweglichkeit gemessen, die sowohl thermisch als auch feld- und ladungsträgerdichteaktiviert ist. Wenn das Mischverhältnis variiert wird, steigt die Löcherbeweglichkeit mit zunehmendem ZnPc-Anteil, während die effektive Energielücke unverändert bleibt. Verschiedene weitere Materialien und Materialmischungen werden hinsichtlich Löcher- und Elektronenbeweglichkeit sowie ihrer Energielücke charakterisiert, einschließlich bisher wenig untersuchter hochverdünnter Donator-Systeme. In allen Materialien wird eine deutliche Feldaktivierung der Beweglichkeit beobachtet. Die Ergebnisse ermöglichen eine verbesserte Beschreibung der detaillierten Funktionsweise organischer Solarzellen und unterstützen die künftige Entwicklung hocheffizienter und optimierter Bauteile.:1. Introduction
2. Organic semiconductors and devices
2.1. Organic semiconductors
2.1.1. Conjugated π system
2.1.2. Small molecules and polymers
2.1.3. Disorder in amorphous materials
2.1.4. Polarons
2.1.5. Polaron hopping
2.1.6. Fermi-Dirac distribution and Fermi level
2.1.7. Quasi-Fermi levels
2.1.8. Trap states
2.1.9. Doping
2.1.10. Excitons
2.2. Interfaces and blend layers
2.2.1. Interface dipoles
2.2.2. Energy level bending
2.2.3. Injection from metal into semiconductor, and extraction
2.2.4. Excitons at interfaces
2.3. Charge transport and recombination in organic semiconductors
2.3.1. Drift transport
2.3.2. Charge carrier mobility
2.3.3. Thermally activated transport
2.3.4. Diffusion transport
2.3.5. Drift-diffusion transport
2.3.6. Space-charge limited current
2.3.7. Recombination
2.4. Mobility measurement
2.4.1. SCLC and TCLC
2.4.2. Time of flight
2.4.3. Organic field effect transistors
2.4.4. CELIV
2.5. Organic solar cells
2.5.1. Exciton diffusion towards the interface
2.5.2. Dissociation of CT states
2.5.3. CT recombination
2.5.4. Flat and bulk heterojunction
2.5.5. Transport layers
2.5.6. Thin film optics
2.5.7. Current-voltage characteristics and equivalent circuit
2.5.8. Solar cell efficiency
2.5.9. Limits of efficiency
2.5.10. Correct solar cell characterization
2.5.11. The \"O-Factor\"
3. Materials and experimental methods
3.1. Materials
3.2. Device fabrication and layout
3.2.1. Layer deposition
3.2.2. Encapsulation
3.2.3. Homogeneity of layer thickness on a wafer
3.2.4. Device layout
3.3. Characterization
3.3.1. Electrical characterization
3.3.2. Sample illumination
3.3.3. Temperature dependent characterization
3.3.4. UPS
4. Simulations
5.1. Design of single carrier devices
5.1.1. General design requirements
5.1.2. Single carrier devices for space-charge limited current
5.1.3. Ohmic regime
5.1.4. Design of injection and extraction layers
5.2. Advanced evaluation of SCLC – potential mapping
5.2.1. Potential mapping by thickness variation
5.2.2. Further evaluation of the transport profile
5.2.3. Injection into and extraction from single carrier devices
5.2.4. Majority carrier approximation
5.3. Proof of principle: POEM on simulated data
5.3.1. Constant mobility
5.3.2. Field dependent mobility
5.3.3. Field and charge density activated mobility
5.3.4. Conclusion
5.4. Application: Transport characterization in organic semiconductors
5.4.1. Hole transport in ZnPc:C60
5.4.2. Hole transport in ZnPc:C60 – temperature variation
5.4.3. Hole transport in ZnPc:C60 – blend ratio variation
5.4.4. Hole transport in ZnPc:C70
5.4.5. Hole transport in neat ZnPc
5.4.6. Hole transport in F4-ZnPc:C60
5.4.7. Hole transport in DCV-5T-Me33:C60
5.4.8. Electron transport in ZnPc:C60
5.4.9. Electron transport in neat Bis-HFl-NTCDI
5.5. Summary and discussion of the results
5.5.1. Phthalocyanine:C60 blends
5.5.2. DCV-5T-Me33:C60
5.5.3. Conclusion
6. Organic solar cell characteristics: the influence of temperature
6.1. ZnPc:C60 solar cells
6.1.1. Temperature variation
6.1.2. Illumination intensity variation
6.2. Voc in flat and bulk heterojunction organic solar cells
6.2.1. Qualitative difference in Voc(I, T)
6.2.2. Interpretation of Voc(I, T)
6.3. BHJ stoichiometry variation
6.3.1. Voc upon variation of stoichiometry and contact layer
6.3.2. V0 upon stoichiometry variation
6.3.3. Low donor content stoichiometry
6.3.4. Conclusion from stoichiometry variation
6.4. Transport material variation
6.4.1. HTM variation
6.4.2. ETM variation
6.5. Donor:acceptor material variation
6.5.1. Donor variation
6.5.2. Acceptor variation
6.6. Conclusion
7. Summary and outlook
7.1. Summary
7.2. Outlook
A. Appendix
A.1. Energy pay-back of this thesis
A.2. Tables and registers
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Lutherans and Pentecostals in mission amongst the Vhavenda: a comparative study in missionary methodsKhorommbi, Ndwambi Lawrence 31 October 2003 (has links)
The thesis of this study is that both Pentecostal and non-Pentecostal churches can
grow at a time when only the Pentecostal churches have grown. The stagnation that
has occurred in many ''mainline" churches.need not be allowed to increase or
continue. In Venda (Northern Province) both the Lutherans and the Pentecostals have
enjoyed visible growth.
Chapter 1 introduces the thesis, the choice of the study area, the objectives of the
study, and the typology, methodology and relevance of the study. Chapter 2 looks at
the history and socio-economic backgrowtd of the Vhavenda. Chapter 3 describes
traditional Vhavenda beliefs and rituals. The Vhavenda world-view is different from
that of the West but closer to that of the East and the Bible. Chapter 4 concentrates on
missionary Christianity in Venda and briefly discusses the missionary methods
adopted by the Berlin Missionary Society. Chapter 5 discusses the coming of
Pentecostalism to South Africa and Venda. Chapter 6 examines how the Lutherans
and the Apostolic Faith Mission church conducted their mission during the
"maturation of Apartheid'' in Venda. Major events in the collision between apartheid
and the Vhavenda are highlighted. Chapter 7 discusses the unfinished work of the
church in Venda. Chapter 8 examines the challenge for Christian mission in the
twenty-first century. / Christian Spirituality, Church History and Missiology / D.Th (Missiology)
|
| 258 |
Lutherans and Pentecostals in mission amongst the Vhavenda: a comparative study in missionary methodsKhorommbi, Ndwambi Lawrence 31 October 2003 (has links)
The thesis of this study is that both Pentecostal and non-Pentecostal churches can
grow at a time when only the Pentecostal churches have grown. The stagnation that
has occurred in many ''mainline" churches.need not be allowed to increase or
continue. In Venda (Northern Province) both the Lutherans and the Pentecostals have
enjoyed visible growth.
Chapter 1 introduces the thesis, the choice of the study area, the objectives of the
study, and the typology, methodology and relevance of the study. Chapter 2 looks at
the history and socio-economic backgrowtd of the Vhavenda. Chapter 3 describes
traditional Vhavenda beliefs and rituals. The Vhavenda world-view is different from
that of the West but closer to that of the East and the Bible. Chapter 4 concentrates on
missionary Christianity in Venda and briefly discusses the missionary methods
adopted by the Berlin Missionary Society. Chapter 5 discusses the coming of
Pentecostalism to South Africa and Venda. Chapter 6 examines how the Lutherans
and the Apostolic Faith Mission church conducted their mission during the
"maturation of Apartheid'' in Venda. Major events in the collision between apartheid
and the Vhavenda are highlighted. Chapter 7 discusses the unfinished work of the
church in Venda. Chapter 8 examines the challenge for Christian mission in the
twenty-first century. / Christian Spirituality, Church History and Missiology / D.Th (Missiology)
|
| 259 |
O envolvimento da proteína adaptadora 1 (AP-1) no mecanismo de regulação negativa do receptor CD4 por Nef de HIV-1 / The involvement of Adaptor Protein 1 (AP-1) on the Mechanism of CD4 Down-regulation by Nef from HIV-1Tavares, Lucas Alves 05 August 2016 (has links)
O Vírus da Imunodeficiência Humana (HIV) é o agente etiológico da Síndrome da Imunodeficiência Adquirida (AIDS). A AIDS é uma doença de distribuição mundial, e estima-se que existam atualmente pelo menos 36,9 milhões de pessoas infectadas com o vírus. Durante o seu ciclo replicativo, o HIV promove diversas alterações na fisiologia da célula hospedeira a fim de promover sua sobrevivência e potencializar a replicação. A rápida progressão da infecção pelo HIV-1 em humanos e em modelos animais está intimamente ligada à função da proteína acessória Nef. Dentre as diversas ações de Nef está a regulação negativa de proteínas importantes na resposta imunológica, como o receptor CD4. Sabe-se que esta ação resulta da indução da degradação de CD4 em lisossomos, mas os mecanismos moleculares envolvidos ainda são totalmente elucidados. Nef forma um complexo tripartite com a cauda citosólica de CD4 e a proteína adaptadora 2 (AP-2), em vesículas revestidas por clatrina nascentes, induzindo a internalização e degradação lisossomal de CD4. Pesquisas anteriores demonstraram que o direcionamento de CD4 aos lisossomos por Nef envolve a entrada do receptor na via dos corpos multivesiculares (MVBs), por um mecanismo atípico, pois, embora não necessite da ubiquitinação de carga, depende da ação de proteínas que compõem os ESCRTs (Endosomal Sorting Complexes Required for Transport) e da ação de Alix, uma proteína acessória da maquinaria ESCRT. Já foi reportado que Nef interage com subunidades dos complexos AP-1, AP-2, AP-3 e Nef não parece interagir com subunidades de AP-4 e AP-5. Entretanto, o papel da interação de Nef com AP-1 e AP-3 na regulação negativa de CD4 ainda não está totalmente elucidado. Ademais, AP-1, AP-2 e AP-3 são potencialmente heterogêneos devido à existência de isoformas múltiplas das subunidades codificadas por diferentes genes. Todavia, existem poucos estudos para demonstrar se as diferentes combinações de isoformas dos APs são formadas e se possuem propriedades funcionais distintas. O presente trabalho procurou identificar e caracterizar fatores celulares envolvidos na regulação do tráfego intracelular de proteínas no processo de regulação negativa de CD4 induzido por Nef. Mais especificamente, este estudo buscou caracterizar a participação do complexo AP-1 na modulação negativa de CD4 por Nef de HIV-1, através do estudo funcional das duas isoformas de ?-adaptina, subunidades de AP-1. Utilizando a técnica de Pull-down demonstramos que Nef é capaz de interagir com ?2. Além disso, nossos dados de Imunoblot indicaram que a proteína ?2-adaptina, e não ?1-adaptina, é necessária no processo de degradação lisossomal de CD4 por Nef e que esta participação é conservada para degradação de CD4 por Nef de diferentes cepas virais. Ademais, por citometria de fluxo, o silenciamento de ?2, e não de ?1, compromete a diminuição dos níveis de CD4 por Nef da membrana plasmática. A análise por imunofluorêsncia indireta também revelou que a diminuição dos níveis de ?2 impede a redistribuição de CD4 por Nef para regiões perinucleares, acarretando no acúmulo de CD4, retirados por Nef da membrana plasmática, em endossomos primários. A depleção de ?1A, outra subunidade de AP-1, acarretou na diminuição dos níveis celulares de ?2 e ?1, bem como, no comprometimento da eficiente degradação de CD4 por Nef. Além disso, foi possível observar que, ao perturbar a maquinaria ESCRT via super-expressão de HRS (uma subunidade do complexo ESCRT-0), ocorreu um acumulo de ?2 em endossomos dilatados contendo HRS-GFP, nos quais também detectou-se CD4 que foi internalizado por Nef. Em conjunto, os resultados indicam que ?2-adaptina é uma importante molécula para o direcionamento de CD4 por Nef para a via ESCRT/MVB, mostrando ser uma proteína relevante no sistema endo-lisossomal. Ademais, os resultados indicaram que as isoformas ?-adaptinas não só possuem funções distintas, mas também parecem compor complexos AP-1 com diferentes funções celulares, já que apenas a variante AP-1 contendo ?2, mas não ?1, participa da regulação negativa de CD4 por Nef. Estes estudos contribuem para o melhor entendimento dos mecanismos moleculares envolvidos na atividade de Nef, que poderão também ajudar na melhor compreensão da patogênese do HIV e da síndrome relacionada. Em adição, este trabalho contribui para o entendimento de processos fundamentais da regulação do tráfego de proteínas transmembrana no sistema endo-lisossomal. / The Human Immunodeficiency Virus (HIV) is the etiologic agent of Acquired Immunodeficiency Syndrome (AIDS). AIDS is a disease which has a global distribution, and it is estimated that there are currently at least 36.9 million people infected with the virus. During the replication cycle, HIV promotes several changes in the physiology of the host cell to promote their survival and enhance replication. The fast progression of HIV-1 in humans and animal models is closely linked to the function of an accessory protein Nef. Among several actions of Nef, one is the most important is the down-regulation of proteins from the immune response, such as the CD4 receptor. It is known that this action causes CD4 degradation in lysosome, but the molecular mechanisms are still incompletely understood. Nef forms a tripartite complex with the cytosolic tail of the CD4 and adapter protein 2 (AP-2) in clathrin-coated vesicles, inducing CD4 internalization and lysosome degradation. Previous research has demonstrated that CD4 target to lysosomes by Nef involves targeting of this receptor to multivesicular bodies (MVBs) pathway by an atypical mechanism because, although not need charging ubiquitination, depends on the proteins from ESCRTs (Endosomal Sorting Complexes Required for Transport) machinery and the action of Alix, an accessory protein ESCRT machinery. It has been reported that Nef interacts with subunits of AP- 1, AP-2, AP-3 complexes and Nef does not appear to interact with AP-4 and AP-5 subunits. However, the role of Nef interaction with AP-1 or AP-3 in CD4 down-regulation is poorly understood. Furthermore, AP-1, AP-2 and AP-3 are potentially heterogeneous due to the existence of multiple subunits isoforms encoded by different genes. However, there are few studies to demonstrate if the different combinations of APs isoforms are form and if they have distinct functional properties. This study aim to identify and characterize cellular factors involved on CD4 down-modulation induced by Nef from HIV-1. More specifically, this study aimed to characterize the involvement of AP-1 complex in the down-regulation of CD4 by Nef HIV-1 through the functional study of the two isoforms of ?-adaptins, AP-1 subunits. By pull-down technique, we showed that Nef is able to interact with ?2. In addition, our data from immunoblots indicated that ?2- adaptin, not ?1-adaptin, is required in Nef-mediated targeting of CD4 to lysosomes and the ?2 participation in this process is conserved by Nef from different viral strains. Furthermore, by flow cytometry assay, ?2 depletion, but not ?1 depletion, compromises the reduction of surface CD4 levels induced by Nef. Immunofluorescence microscopy analysis also revealed that ?2 depletion impairs the redistribution of CD4 by Nef to juxtanuclear region, resulting in CD4 accumulation in primary endosomes. Knockdown of ?1A, another subunit of AP-1, resulted in decreased cellular levels of ?1 and ?2 and, compromising the efficient CD4 degradation by Nef. Moreover, upon artificially stabilizing ESCRT-I in early endosomes, via overexpression of HRS, internalized CD4 accumulates in enlarged HRS-GFP positive endosomes, where co-localize with ?2. Together, the results indicate that ?2-adaptin is a molecule that is essential for CD4 targeting by Nef to ESCRT/MVB pathway, being an important protein in the endo-lysosomal system. Furthermore, the results indicate that ?-adaptins isoforms not only have different functions, but also seem to compose AP-1 complex with distinct cell functions, and only the AP-1 variant comprising ?2, but not ?1, acts in the CD4 down-regulation induced by Nef. These studies contribute to a better understanding on the molecular mechanisms involved in Nef activities, which may also help to improve the understanding of the HIV pathogenesis and the related syndrome. In addition, this work contributes with the understanding of primordial process regulation on intracellular trafficking of transmembrane proteins.
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| 260 |
O envolvimento da proteína adaptadora 1 (AP-1) no mecanismo de regulação negativa do receptor CD4 por Nef de HIV-1 / The involvement of Adaptor Protein 1 (AP-1) on the Mechanism of CD4 Down-regulation by Nef from HIV-1Lucas Alves Tavares 05 August 2016 (has links)
O Vírus da Imunodeficiência Humana (HIV) é o agente etiológico da Síndrome da Imunodeficiência Adquirida (AIDS). A AIDS é uma doença de distribuição mundial, e estima-se que existam atualmente pelo menos 36,9 milhões de pessoas infectadas com o vírus. Durante o seu ciclo replicativo, o HIV promove diversas alterações na fisiologia da célula hospedeira a fim de promover sua sobrevivência e potencializar a replicação. A rápida progressão da infecção pelo HIV-1 em humanos e em modelos animais está intimamente ligada à função da proteína acessória Nef. Dentre as diversas ações de Nef está a regulação negativa de proteínas importantes na resposta imunológica, como o receptor CD4. Sabe-se que esta ação resulta da indução da degradação de CD4 em lisossomos, mas os mecanismos moleculares envolvidos ainda são totalmente elucidados. Nef forma um complexo tripartite com a cauda citosólica de CD4 e a proteína adaptadora 2 (AP-2), em vesículas revestidas por clatrina nascentes, induzindo a internalização e degradação lisossomal de CD4. Pesquisas anteriores demonstraram que o direcionamento de CD4 aos lisossomos por Nef envolve a entrada do receptor na via dos corpos multivesiculares (MVBs), por um mecanismo atípico, pois, embora não necessite da ubiquitinação de carga, depende da ação de proteínas que compõem os ESCRTs (Endosomal Sorting Complexes Required for Transport) e da ação de Alix, uma proteína acessória da maquinaria ESCRT. Já foi reportado que Nef interage com subunidades dos complexos AP-1, AP-2, AP-3 e Nef não parece interagir com subunidades de AP-4 e AP-5. Entretanto, o papel da interação de Nef com AP-1 e AP-3 na regulação negativa de CD4 ainda não está totalmente elucidado. Ademais, AP-1, AP-2 e AP-3 são potencialmente heterogêneos devido à existência de isoformas múltiplas das subunidades codificadas por diferentes genes. Todavia, existem poucos estudos para demonstrar se as diferentes combinações de isoformas dos APs são formadas e se possuem propriedades funcionais distintas. O presente trabalho procurou identificar e caracterizar fatores celulares envolvidos na regulação do tráfego intracelular de proteínas no processo de regulação negativa de CD4 induzido por Nef. Mais especificamente, este estudo buscou caracterizar a participação do complexo AP-1 na modulação negativa de CD4 por Nef de HIV-1, através do estudo funcional das duas isoformas de ?-adaptina, subunidades de AP-1. Utilizando a técnica de Pull-down demonstramos que Nef é capaz de interagir com ?2. Além disso, nossos dados de Imunoblot indicaram que a proteína ?2-adaptina, e não ?1-adaptina, é necessária no processo de degradação lisossomal de CD4 por Nef e que esta participação é conservada para degradação de CD4 por Nef de diferentes cepas virais. Ademais, por citometria de fluxo, o silenciamento de ?2, e não de ?1, compromete a diminuição dos níveis de CD4 por Nef da membrana plasmática. A análise por imunofluorêsncia indireta também revelou que a diminuição dos níveis de ?2 impede a redistribuição de CD4 por Nef para regiões perinucleares, acarretando no acúmulo de CD4, retirados por Nef da membrana plasmática, em endossomos primários. A depleção de ?1A, outra subunidade de AP-1, acarretou na diminuição dos níveis celulares de ?2 e ?1, bem como, no comprometimento da eficiente degradação de CD4 por Nef. Além disso, foi possível observar que, ao perturbar a maquinaria ESCRT via super-expressão de HRS (uma subunidade do complexo ESCRT-0), ocorreu um acumulo de ?2 em endossomos dilatados contendo HRS-GFP, nos quais também detectou-se CD4 que foi internalizado por Nef. Em conjunto, os resultados indicam que ?2-adaptina é uma importante molécula para o direcionamento de CD4 por Nef para a via ESCRT/MVB, mostrando ser uma proteína relevante no sistema endo-lisossomal. Ademais, os resultados indicaram que as isoformas ?-adaptinas não só possuem funções distintas, mas também parecem compor complexos AP-1 com diferentes funções celulares, já que apenas a variante AP-1 contendo ?2, mas não ?1, participa da regulação negativa de CD4 por Nef. Estes estudos contribuem para o melhor entendimento dos mecanismos moleculares envolvidos na atividade de Nef, que poderão também ajudar na melhor compreensão da patogênese do HIV e da síndrome relacionada. Em adição, este trabalho contribui para o entendimento de processos fundamentais da regulação do tráfego de proteínas transmembrana no sistema endo-lisossomal. / The Human Immunodeficiency Virus (HIV) is the etiologic agent of Acquired Immunodeficiency Syndrome (AIDS). AIDS is a disease which has a global distribution, and it is estimated that there are currently at least 36.9 million people infected with the virus. During the replication cycle, HIV promotes several changes in the physiology of the host cell to promote their survival and enhance replication. The fast progression of HIV-1 in humans and animal models is closely linked to the function of an accessory protein Nef. Among several actions of Nef, one is the most important is the down-regulation of proteins from the immune response, such as the CD4 receptor. It is known that this action causes CD4 degradation in lysosome, but the molecular mechanisms are still incompletely understood. Nef forms a tripartite complex with the cytosolic tail of the CD4 and adapter protein 2 (AP-2) in clathrin-coated vesicles, inducing CD4 internalization and lysosome degradation. Previous research has demonstrated that CD4 target to lysosomes by Nef involves targeting of this receptor to multivesicular bodies (MVBs) pathway by an atypical mechanism because, although not need charging ubiquitination, depends on the proteins from ESCRTs (Endosomal Sorting Complexes Required for Transport) machinery and the action of Alix, an accessory protein ESCRT machinery. It has been reported that Nef interacts with subunits of AP- 1, AP-2, AP-3 complexes and Nef does not appear to interact with AP-4 and AP-5 subunits. However, the role of Nef interaction with AP-1 or AP-3 in CD4 down-regulation is poorly understood. Furthermore, AP-1, AP-2 and AP-3 are potentially heterogeneous due to the existence of multiple subunits isoforms encoded by different genes. However, there are few studies to demonstrate if the different combinations of APs isoforms are form and if they have distinct functional properties. This study aim to identify and characterize cellular factors involved on CD4 down-modulation induced by Nef from HIV-1. More specifically, this study aimed to characterize the involvement of AP-1 complex in the down-regulation of CD4 by Nef HIV-1 through the functional study of the two isoforms of ?-adaptins, AP-1 subunits. By pull-down technique, we showed that Nef is able to interact with ?2. In addition, our data from immunoblots indicated that ?2- adaptin, not ?1-adaptin, is required in Nef-mediated targeting of CD4 to lysosomes and the ?2 participation in this process is conserved by Nef from different viral strains. Furthermore, by flow cytometry assay, ?2 depletion, but not ?1 depletion, compromises the reduction of surface CD4 levels induced by Nef. Immunofluorescence microscopy analysis also revealed that ?2 depletion impairs the redistribution of CD4 by Nef to juxtanuclear region, resulting in CD4 accumulation in primary endosomes. Knockdown of ?1A, another subunit of AP-1, resulted in decreased cellular levels of ?1 and ?2 and, compromising the efficient CD4 degradation by Nef. Moreover, upon artificially stabilizing ESCRT-I in early endosomes, via overexpression of HRS, internalized CD4 accumulates in enlarged HRS-GFP positive endosomes, where co-localize with ?2. Together, the results indicate that ?2-adaptin is a molecule that is essential for CD4 targeting by Nef to ESCRT/MVB pathway, being an important protein in the endo-lysosomal system. Furthermore, the results indicate that ?-adaptins isoforms not only have different functions, but also seem to compose AP-1 complex with distinct cell functions, and only the AP-1 variant comprising ?2, but not ?1, acts in the CD4 down-regulation induced by Nef. These studies contribute to a better understanding on the molecular mechanisms involved in Nef activities, which may also help to improve the understanding of the HIV pathogenesis and the related syndrome. In addition, this work contributes with the understanding of primordial process regulation on intracellular trafficking of transmembrane proteins.
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