Investigations performed in order to understand the electronic and optoelectronic properties of field effect transistors based on few layers of 2D Copper Indium Selenide (CuIn7Se11) are reported. In general, field effect transistors (FETs), electric double layer field effect transistors (EDL-FETs), and photodetectors are crucial part of several electronics based applications such as tele-communication, bio-sensing, and opto-electronic industry. After the discovery of graphene, several 2D semiconductor materials like TMDs (MoS2, WS2, and MoSe2 etc.), group III-VI materials (InSe, GaSe, and SnS2 etc.) are being studied rigorously in order to develop them as components in next generation FETs. Traditionally, thin films of ternary system of Copper Indium Selenide have been extensively studied and used in optoelectronics industry as photoactive component in solar cells. Thus, it is expected that atomically thin 2D layered structure of Copper Indium Selenide can have optical properties that could potentially be more advantageous than its thin film counterpart and could find use for developing next generation nano devices with utility in opto/nano electronics. Field effect transistors were fabricated using few-layers of CuIn7Se11 flakes, which were mechanically exfoliated from bulk crystals grown using chemical vapor transport technique. Our FET transport characterization measurements indicate n-type behavior with electron field effect mobility µFE ≈ 36 cm^2 V^-1 s^-1 at room temperature when Silicon dioxide (SiO2) is used as a back gate. We found that in such back gated field effect transistor an on/off ratio of ~ 10^4 and a subthreshold swing ≈ 1 V/dec can be obtained. Our investigations further indicate that Electronic performance of these materials can be increased significantly when gated from top using an ionic liquid electrolyte [1-Butyl-3-methylimidazolium hexafluorophosphate (BMIM-PF6)]. We found that electron field effect mobility µFE can be increased from ~ 3 cm^2 V^-1 s^-1 in SiO2 back gated device to ~ 18 cm^2 V^-1 s^-1 in top gated electrolyte devices. Similarly, subthreshold swing can be improved from ~ 30 V/dec to 0.2 V/dec and on/off ratio can be increased from 10^2 to 10^3 by using an electrolyte as a top gate. These FETs were also tested as phototransistors. Our photo-response characterization indicate photo-responsivity ~ 32 A/W with external quantum efficiency exceeding 10^3 % when excited with a 658 nm wavelength laser at room temperature. Our phototransistor also exhibit response times ~ tens of µs with specific detectivity (D*) values reaching ~ 10^12 Jones. The CuIn7Se11 phototransistor properties can be further tuned & enhanced by applying a back gate voltage along with increased source drain bias. For example, photo-responsivity can gain substantial improvement up to ~ 320 A/W upon application of a gate voltage (Vg = 30 V) and/or increased source-drain bias. The photo-responsivity exhibited by these photo detectors are at least an order of magnitude better than commercially available conventional Si based photo detectors coupled with response times that are orders of magnitude better than several other family of layered materials investigated so far. Further photocurrent generation mechanisms, effect of traps is discussed in detail.

Harmonically mode-locked semiconductor lasers with external ring cavities offer high repetition rate pulse trains while maintaining low optical linewidth via long cavity storage times. Single frequency injection locking generates widely-spaced and tunable frequency combs from these harmonically mode-locked lasers, while stabilizing the optical frequencies. The output is stabilized long-term with the help of a feedback loop utilizing either a novel technique based on Pound-Drever-Hall stabilization or by polarization spectroscopy. Error signals of both techniques are simulated and compared to experimentally obtained signals. Frequency combs spaced by 2.5 GHz and ~10 GHz are generated, with demonstrated optical sidemode suppression of unwanted modes of 36 dB, as well as RF supermode noise suppression of 14 dB for longer than 1 hour. In addition to the injection locking of actively harmonically mode-locked lasers, the injection locking technique for regeneratively mode-locked lasers, or Coupled OptoElectronic Oscillators (COEOs), is also demonstrated and characterized extensively.

In dieser Arbeit wird der Catastrophic Optical Damage (COD) zeitaufgelöst untersucht um die beteiligten physikalischen Mechanismen zu identifizieren. Der COD Prozess konnte zeitlich in drei Phasen unterteilt werden, die Alterung, der thermische Runaway (selbst verstärkende Rückkopplung) und das Sekundärschadenswachstum. Die erste Phase konnte durch eine neu eingeführte Art der beschleunigten Bauteilalterung auf den Nanosekunden-Bereich reduziert werden. Die Rolle des Laser-Lichtfelds als Energiequelle des COD-Prozesses wurde experimentell bestätigt. Die genutzten thermographischen Techniken erlaubten eine in-situ Verfolgung des Defektwachstums. Diese direkte Messung der Ausbreitung, die Modellierung des Wärmeflusses und eine kristallographische Materialanalyse zeigen, dass das Material, welches von der Defekt-Front passiert wurde, innerhalb von Nanosekunden zu substanziell tieferen Temperaturen zurückkehrt. Verschiedene experimentelle Ansätze bestätigen das Vorhandensein einer Temperatur im Bereich von 1200°C-1500°C an der Schadensfront während des gesamten Degradationsprozesses. Dabei hat sich gezeigt, dass selbst wenn keine Laseremission mehr vorliegt, die verstärkte spontane Emission ausreicht, um den fortschreitenden Degradationsprozessmit Energie zu versorgen. Für den Start des thermischen Runaway muss ein bestimmter Temperaturunterschied zwischen der späteren COD-Position und dem übrigen aktiven Lasermaterial erreicht werden. Die vorliegende Arbeit zeigt verschiedene Mechanismen auf, die zu einer solchen Situation führen können. Dabei spielen auch physikalische Eigenschaften der verwendeten Materialsysteme und Schichtstrukturen eine entscheidende Rolle. Ein neu im Rahmen dieser Arbeit entwickeltes Modell zur Beschreibung der räumlichen Schadensausbreitung nutzt diesen Umstand, um die Defektkinetik ex-post zu rekonstruieren. Dies ermöglicht das Aufzeigen von Schwachstellen im Bauelement. / The scope of this thesis is the time-resolved investigation of the catastrophic optical damage (COD) and the identification of the underlying physical mechanisms. The COD has been separated in three temporal phases: the aging, the thermal runaway (self-amplifying feedback mechanism), and the secondary defect growth. It was possible to reduce the first phase to a couple of nano-seconds by applying a new accelerated life test scheme. It was experimentally verified that the laser light is the primary energy source of COD. The applied thermographic technologies allowed an in-situ tracing of the defect growth. A fast thermo cycle during the passage of the defect front was confirmed by this direct measurement, a modeling of the heat flow, and a crystallographic material analysis. Different experimental setups indicate the presence of a temperature in the range of 1200°C-1500°C at the defect front, during the entire COD-degradation. Even if no lasing action is present anymore, the amplified spontaneous emission is sufficient to provide enough energy for further defect growth. In order to initiate the thermal runaway, a specific temperature difference is necessary between the COD-starting location and the remaining active laser material. This thesis provides an analysis of the mechanisms leading to such a situation. This kind of analysis was used to develop a new model of the geometrical defect growth. The ability to re-construct the defect dynamics based on ex-post analysis of the defect pattern allows for the identification of bottlenecks in the investigated device design leading to COD.

Aufgrund der steigenden Verkehrsnachfrage und der begrenzten Resourcen zum Ausbau der Straßenverkehrsnetze werden zukünftig größere Anforderungen an die Effektivität von Telematikanwendungen gestellt. Die Erhebung und Bereitstellung aktueller Verkehrsdaten durch geeignete Sensoren ist dazu eine entscheidende Voraussetzung. Gegenstand dieser Arbeit ist die großflächige Analyse des Straßenverkehrs auf der Basis bodengebundener und verteilter opto-elektronischer Sensoren. Es wird ein Konzept vorgestellt, dass eine von der Bilddatenerhebung bis zur Bereitstellung der Daten für Verkehrsanwendungen durchgehende Verarbeitungskette enthält. Der interdisziplinäre Ansatz bildet die Basis zur Verknüpfung eines solchen Sensorsystems mit Verkehrstelematik. Die Abbildung des Verkehrsgeschehens erfolgt im Gegensatz zu herkömmlichen bodengebundenen Messsystemen innerhalb größerer zusammenhängender Ausschnitte des Verkehrsraums. Dadurch können streckenbezogene Verkehrskenngrößen direkt bestimmt werden. Die Georeferenzierung der Verkehrsobjekte ist die Grundlage für eine optimale Verkehrsanalyse und Verkehrssteuerung. Die generierten Daten sind Basis zur Findung und Verifizierung von Theorien und Modellen sowie zur Entwicklung verkehrsadaptiver Steuerungsverfahren auf mikroskopischer Ebene. Es wird gezeigt, wie aus der Fusion gleichzeitig erhaltener Daten mehrerer Sensoren, die im Bereich des Sichtbaren und im thermalen Infrarot sensitiv sind, ein zusammengesetztes Abbildungsmosaik eines vergrößerten Verkehrsraums erzeugt werden kann. In diesem Abbildungsmosaik werden Verkehrsdatenmodelle unterschiedlicher räumlicher Kategorien abgeleitet. Die Darstellung des Abbildungsmosaiks mit seinen Daten erfolgt auf unterschiedlichen Informationsebenen in geokodierten Karten. Die Bewertung mikroskopischer Verkehrsprozesse wird durch die besondere Berücksichtigung der Zeitkomponente bei der Visualisierung möglich. Die vorgestellte Verarbeitungskette beinhaltet neue Anwendungsbereiche für geografische Informationssysteme (GIS). Der beschriebene Ansatz wurde konzeptionell bearbeitet, in der Programmiersprache IDL realisiert und erfolgreich getestet. / The growing demand of urban and interregional road traffic requires an improvement regarding the effectiveness of telematics systems. The use of appropriate sensor systems for traffic data acquisition is a decisive prerequisite for the efficiency of traffic control. This thesis focuses on analyzing road traffic based on stationary and distributed ground opto-electronic matrix sensors. A concept which covers all parts from image data acquisition up to traffic data provision is presented. This interdisciplinary approach establishes a basis for the integration of such a sensor system into telematics systems. Unlike conventional ground stationary sensors, the acquisition of traffic data is spread over larger areas in this case. As a result, road specific traffic data can be measured directly. Georeferencing of traffic objects is the basis for optimal road traffic analysis and road traffic control. This approach will demonstrate how to generate a spatial mosaic consisting of traffic data generated by several sensors with different spectral resolution. For traffic flow analysis the realisation of special 4D data visualisation methods on different information levels was an essential need. The data processing chain introduces new areas of application for geographical information systems (GIS). The approach utilised in this study has been worked out conceptually and also successfully tested and applied in the programming language IDL.

Neste trabalho são apresentados resultados da caracterização estrutural e morfológica de filmes de oxinitreto de silício (SiOxNy) depositados pela técnica de deposição química a vapor assistida por plasma (PECVD) a baixa temperatura (320°C). O objetivo deste trabalho é relacionar a composição química de ligas amorfas de SiOxNy com suas propriedades ópticas, estruturais, morfológicas e mecânicas visando sua aplicação em dispositivos elétricos, optoeletrônica e microestruturas. A proposta é dar continuidade a trabalhos prévios desenvolvidos no grupo, que demonstraram a viabilidade de controlar a composição química e, como conseqüência, controlar as propriedades como o índice de refração, constante dielétrica e fotoluminescência de filmes de SiOxNy. As condições de deposição foram ajustadas de forma a obter dois tipos de material: filmes de SiOxNy de composição química controlável entre a do SiO2 e a do de Si3N4 e filmes de SiOxNy com composição rica em Si. O material foi caracterizado pelas técnicas de elipsometria, índice de refração por prisma acoplado, RBS (Rutherford Backscattering Spectroscopy), FTIR (Fourier Transform Infrared Spectroscopy), XANES (X-Ray Absorption Near Edge Spectroscopy) na borda K do Si, O e N, medida de stress residual e microscopia eletrônica de varredura (Scanning Electron Microscopy) e de transmissão (Transmission Electron Microscopy). Os resultados mostraram que os filmes com composição química intermediária entre a do SiO2 e a do Si3N4 apresentam arranjo estrutural estável com a temperatura, mantendo as ligações e a estrutura amorfa mesmo após tratamentos térmicos a 1000°C. Também fora demonstrada a possibilidade de obter um material com baixo stress residual e índice de refração ajustável entre 1,46 e 2, resultados ótimos para aplicações em MOEMS (micro-opto-electro- mechanical systems). Já nas amostras ricas em Si foi observada a formação de diferentes fases, sendo uma delas formada por aglomerados de Si e a outra por material constituído por uma mistura de ligações Si-O e Si-N. Este material apresenta a formação de nanocristais de Si, dependendo do conteúdo de Si e das condições do tratamento térmico, permitindo assim, sua aplicação em dispositivos emissores de luz. / In this work results on the morphological and structural characterization of silicon oxynitride (SiOxNy) films deposited by plasma enhanced chemical vapor deposition technique (PECVD) at low temperature (320°C) are presented. The main goal is to correlate the chemical composition of amorphous SiOxNy alloys to their optical, structural, morphological and mechanical properties intending applications on electrical, optoelectronic and micromechanical devices. The proposal is to continue previous research developed in this group, which demonstrated the possibility of tuning the chemical composition and, consequently, the SiOxNy films properties such as refractive index, dielectric constant and photoluminescence by the precise control of the deposition parameters. The deposition conditions were adjusted in order to obtain to material types, SiOxNy films with tunable chemical composition between SiO2 and Si3N4 and silicon-rich SiOxNy. The characterization was performed by elipsometry, refractive index by coupled prism, RBS (Rutherford Backscattering Spectroscopy), FTIR (Fourier Transform Infrared Spectroscopy), XANES (X-Ray Absorption Near Edge Spectroscopy) on K edge of Si, O and N, residual stress measurement and Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM) and Transmission Electron Microscopy (TEM). The films with chemical composition between SiO2 and Si3N4 presented stable structural arrangement with temperature, maintaining the chemical bonds and the amorphous structure after high temperature annealing. Also the results demonstrated the possibility of producing a low residual stress material and an adjustable refractive index since in the 1.46 to 2 range, excellent result for MOEMS devices (micro-opto-electro- mechanical systems applications. For silicon rich-samples the formation of different phases was observed, one formed by Si clusters and other one by a mixture of Si-O and Si-N bonds. Depending on the Si content and on the annealing conditions this material can present nanocristals, results which allowed us to understand and to optimize this material for light emitting devices applications.

Ce travail de thèse porte sur l’élaboration de matériaux polymères conjugués absorbants dans le proche infra-rouge. Il est issu du projet TAPIR financé par l’ANR dans lequel nous visons le développement de dispositifs d’interface Homme/Machine (IHM) pour des applications dans le secteur de la santé, afin de limiter la propagation des agents pathogènes. Les IHM étant contrôlées avec la main, sans contact, grâce à la réflectivité de la peau, (gamme spectrale 850-950 nm), il faut développer des matériaux absorbant dans cette gamme. Dans ce projet, notre rôle a été de synthétiser la partie active du photodétecteur infrarouge utilisé pour récupérer l’information. Une étude bibliographique et des calculs préliminaires ont permis une sélection judicieuse de différents monomères afin d’assurer une stabilité intrinsèque et obtenir les propriétés d’absorption requises. Différents monomères donneurs (D) et accepteurs (A) ont été combinés afin de synthétiser des copolymères alternés de types (D-A). Deux familles de copolymères absorbants dans le proche infrarouge ont ainsi été synthétisés Tous les copolymères ont été synthétisés via la polycondensation Stille. Leurs propriétés optiques, électroniques et leurs stabilités thermiques ont été étudiées. Par la suite, après avoir confirmé le rôle prépondérant de la force du monomère accepteur, par rapport à celle du donneur, sur les propriétés d’absorptions et les niveaux électroniques des différents copolymères obtenus, nous avons développé une approche originale très peu rapportée dans la littérature. Elle consiste en l’élaboration de copolymères de type (A-A). Ainsi, nous avons synthétisé six copolymères absorbants dans la gamme de longueurs d’onde souhaitée, et même au-delà. Enfin, certains copolymères ont pu être caractérisés en dispositifs OFET et photodétecteurs. / This thesis work focuses on the development of conjugated polymeric materials which absorb in the near infrared. It is the result of the TAPIR project funded by the ANR in which we aim to develop human-machine interface (HMI) devices for applications in the health sector, in order to limit the spread of pathogens. Since HMIs are controlled by hand, without contact, thanks to the reflectivity of the skin (spectral range 850-950 nm), it is necessary to develop materials which ansorb in this range. In this project, our role was to synthesize the active part of the infrared photodetector used to retrieve the information. A bibliographical study and preliminary calculations have allowed a judicious selection of different monomers to ensure intrinsic stability and obtain the required absorption properties. Different donor monomers (D) and acceptors (A) were combined to synthesize alternating copolymers of types (D-A). Two families of copolymers which absorb in the near infrared have been synthesized. All copolymers have been synthesized via Stille polycondensation. Their optical, electronic and thermal properties have been studied. Subsequently, after confirming the predominant role of the strength of the accepting monomer, compared to that of the donor, on the absorption properties and electronic levels of the various copolymers obtained, we developed an original approach that has been reported very rarely in the literature. It consists of the production of copolymers of the type (A-A). Thus, we have synthesized six copolymers which absorb in the desired wavelength range, and even beyond. Finally, some copolymers have been characterized as OFET devices and photodetectors.

Neste trabalho são apresentados resultados da caracterização estrutural e morfológica de filmes de oxinitreto de silício (SiOxNy) depositados pela técnica de deposição química a vapor assistida por plasma (PECVD) a baixa temperatura (320°C). O objetivo deste trabalho é relacionar a composição química de ligas amorfas de SiOxNy com suas propriedades ópticas, estruturais, morfológicas e mecânicas visando sua aplicação em dispositivos elétricos, optoeletrônica e microestruturas. A proposta é dar continuidade a trabalhos prévios desenvolvidos no grupo, que demonstraram a viabilidade de controlar a composição química e, como conseqüência, controlar as propriedades como o índice de refração, constante dielétrica e fotoluminescência de filmes de SiOxNy. As condições de deposição foram ajustadas de forma a obter dois tipos de material: filmes de SiOxNy de composição química controlável entre a do SiO2 e a do de Si3N4 e filmes de SiOxNy com composição rica em Si. O material foi caracterizado pelas técnicas de elipsometria, índice de refração por prisma acoplado, RBS (Rutherford Backscattering Spectroscopy), FTIR (Fourier Transform Infrared Spectroscopy), XANES (X-Ray Absorption Near Edge Spectroscopy) na borda K do Si, O e N, medida de stress residual e microscopia eletrônica de varredura (Scanning Electron Microscopy) e de transmissão (Transmission Electron Microscopy). Os resultados mostraram que os filmes com composição química intermediária entre a do SiO2 e a do Si3N4 apresentam arranjo estrutural estável com a temperatura, mantendo as ligações e a estrutura amorfa mesmo após tratamentos térmicos a 1000°C. Também fora demonstrada a possibilidade de obter um material com baixo stress residual e índice de refração ajustável entre 1,46 e 2, resultados ótimos para aplicações em MOEMS (micro-opto-electro- mechanical systems). Já nas amostras ricas em Si foi observada a formação de diferentes fases, sendo uma delas formada por aglomerados de Si e a outra por material constituído por uma mistura de ligações Si-O e Si-N. Este material apresenta a formação de nanocristais de Si, dependendo do conteúdo de Si e das condições do tratamento térmico, permitindo assim, sua aplicação em dispositivos emissores de luz. / In this work results on the morphological and structural characterization of silicon oxynitride (SiOxNy) films deposited by plasma enhanced chemical vapor deposition technique (PECVD) at low temperature (320°C) are presented. The main goal is to correlate the chemical composition of amorphous SiOxNy alloys to their optical, structural, morphological and mechanical properties intending applications on electrical, optoelectronic and micromechanical devices. The proposal is to continue previous research developed in this group, which demonstrated the possibility of tuning the chemical composition and, consequently, the SiOxNy films properties such as refractive index, dielectric constant and photoluminescence by the precise control of the deposition parameters. The deposition conditions were adjusted in order to obtain to material types, SiOxNy films with tunable chemical composition between SiO2 and Si3N4 and silicon-rich SiOxNy. The characterization was performed by elipsometry, refractive index by coupled prism, RBS (Rutherford Backscattering Spectroscopy), FTIR (Fourier Transform Infrared Spectroscopy), XANES (X-Ray Absorption Near Edge Spectroscopy) on K edge of Si, O and N, residual stress measurement and Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM) and Transmission Electron Microscopy (TEM). The films with chemical composition between SiO2 and Si3N4 presented stable structural arrangement with temperature, maintaining the chemical bonds and the amorphous structure after high temperature annealing. Also the results demonstrated the possibility of producing a low residual stress material and an adjustable refractive index since in the 1.46 to 2 range, excellent result for MOEMS devices (micro-opto-electro- mechanical systems applications. For silicon rich-samples the formation of different phases was observed, one formed by Si clusters and other one by a mixture of Si-O and Si-N bonds. Depending on the Si content and on the annealing conditions this material can present nanocristals, results which allowed us to understand and to optimize this material for light emitting devices applications.

L'illumination par la face arrière amincie des imageurs CMOS est une des voies étudiées pour accroître le rapport signal à bruit et ainsi la sensibilité de ce capteur. Or cette configuration est adaptée à la détection des électrons dans la gamme d'énergie [[1 ; 12 keV]. L'électron incident crée, par multiplication, plusieurs centaines d'électrons secondaires, proche de la surface. Une couche de passivation par surdopage P++ de la face arrière est nécessaire afin de réduire le nombre de recombinaisons de surface des électrons. Par effet de champ électrique, la couche de passivation augmente le nombre de charges collectées, et ainsi le gain de collection du capteur. L'objectif de cette thèse est de développer des moyens de caractérisation pour déterminer in situ les performances sur le gain de collection de six procédés de passivation. Préalablement, le profil de dépôt d'énergie de l'électron incident est étudié au moyen d'une simulation Monte-Carlo puis d'un modèle analytique. Un modèle associé du gain de collection indique qu'à forte énergie, l'effet miroir de la passivation est déterminant tandis qu'à faible énergie, l'épaisseur de la passivation est un facteur clef. Une première expérience d'irradiation de diodes étendues P++=N permet de dégager l'influence du procédé de passivation sur les recombinaisons de surface. Grâce à une seconde caractérisation de type < événement unique >, directement sur capteur CMOS aminci, les passivations sont discriminées quant à leur effet miroir et l'étalement de la charge qu'elles induisent. Le recuit laser d'activation des dopants peut s'avérer une source d'inhomogénéités du gain sur la surface de la matrice / Backside illuminated thinned CMOS imaging system is a technology developed to increase the signal to noise ratio and the sensibility of such sensors. This configuration is adapted to the electrons detection from the energy range of [1 - 12 keV]. The impinging electron creates by multiplication several hundreds of secondary electrons close to the surface. A P++ highly-doped passivation layer of the rear face is required to reduce the secondary electron surface recombination rate. Thanks to the potential barrier induced by the P++ layer, the passivation layer increases the collected charges number and so the sensor collection gain. The goal of this study is to develop some experimental methods in order to determine the effect of six different passivation processes on the collection gain. Beforehand, the energy profile deposited by an incident electron is studied with the combination of Monte-Carlo simulations and some analytical calculations. The final collection gain model shows that the mirror effect from the passivation layer is a key factor at high energies whereas the passivation layer has to be as thin as possible at low energies. A first experimental setup which consists in irradiating P++=N large diodes allows to study the passivation process impacts on the surface recombinations. Thanks to a second setup based on a single event upset directly on thinned CMOS sensor, passivation techniques are discriminated in term of mirror effect and the implied spreading charges. The doping atoms activation laser annealing is turn out to be a multiplication gain inhomogeneity source impacting directly the matrix uniformity

Philosophiae Doctor - PhD / This work investigated the synthesis of Al2O3-coated TiO2 nanotubes via the anodisation technique for application in DSCs. TiO2 nanotube arrays with an average length of 15 μm, diameter of 50 nm and wall thickness of 15 nm were synthesised via anodisation using an organic neutral electrolyte consisting of 2 M H2O + 0.15 M NH4F + ethylene glycol (EG) at an applied voltage of 60 V for 6 hours. In addition, scanning electron microscope (SEM) micrographs showed that anodisation at these conditions yields nanotubes with smooth walls and hexagonally shaped, closed bottoms. X-ray diffraction (XRD) patterns revealed that the as-anodised nanotubes were amorphous and as such were annealed at 450 °C for 2 hours in air at atmospheric pressure, which yielded crystalline anatase TiO2 nanotubes. Highresolution transmission electron microscope (TEM) images revealed that the nanotube walls comprised of individual nano-sized TiO2 crystallites. Photoluminescence (PL) spectroscopy showed that the optical properties, especially the bandgap of the TiO2 nanotubes are dependent on the crystallinity, which in turn was dependent on the structural characteristics, such as the wall thickness, diameter and length. The PL measurements were supplemented by Raman spectra, which revealed an increased in the quantum confinement of the optical phonon modes of the nanotubes synthesised at low anodisation voltages, consequently yielding a larger bandgap The annealed nanotubes were then coated with a thin layer of alumina (Al2O3) using a simple sol-gel dip coating method, effectively used to coat films of nanoparticles. Atomic force microscopy (AFM) showed that the average nanotube diameter increased post sol-gel deposition, which suggests that the nanotubes are coated with a layer of Al2O3. This was confirmed with HR-TEM, in conjunction with selected area electron diffraction (SAED) and XRD analyses, which showed the coating of the nanotube walls with a thin layer of amorphous Al2O3 with a thickness between 4 and 7 nm. Ultraviolet-visible (UVvis) absorbance spectra showed that the dye-adsorption ability of the nanotubes are enhanced by the Al2O3 coating and hence is a viable material for solar cell application. Upon application in the DSC, it was found by means of photo-current density – voltage (I – V) measurements that a DSC fabricated with a 15 μm thick layer of bare TiO2 nanotubes has a photon-to-light conversion efficiency of 4.56%, which increased to 4.88% after coating the nanotubes with a layer of alumina. However, these devices had poorer conversion efficiencies than bare and Al2O3-coated TiO2 nanoparticle based DSCs, which boasted with efficiencies of 6.54 and 7.26%, respectively. The low efficiencies of the TiO2 nanotube based DSCs are ascribed to the low surface area of the layer of nanotubes, which yielded low photocurrent densities. Electrochemical impedance spectroscopy (EIS) showed that the electron lifetime in the alumina coated nanotubes are almost 20 times greater than in a bare layer of nanoparticles. In addition, it was also found that the charge transfer resistance at the interface of the TiO2/dye/electrolyte is the lowest for an Al2O3-coated TiO2 layer.

La fibre optique demeure le support de transmission le plus utilisé, portant le trafic à une énergie par bit relativement faible. Cependant, à cause de l’absence de mémoire toutoptique pratique, la commutation de paquets est toujours exécutée électriquement. Les conversions Optiques Électriques Optiques (O-E-O) nécessaires font de la commutation l’un des domaines les plus consommateurs d’énergie. Ce problème est de plus en plus important spécialement avec la croissance exponentielle du trafic dans les réseaux optiques. Un défi majeur à prendre en considération dans la conception de futurs réseaux optiques est la restriction de leur consommation énergétique. De ce fait, dans le cadre de cette thèse, nous étudions un commutateur hybride opto-électronique qui consiste en une matrice de commutation optique complétée par une mémoire électronique partagée. L’analyse de performance prenant en compte différentes classes de service, distributions de paquets et méthodes de connectivité du commutateur (canaux WDMet/ou SDM), montre que, grâce aux stratégies de commutation établies, le commutateur hybride répond aux besoins de toutes les classes de service en termes de taux de perte de paquets, la charge durable du système et la latence. De plus, il réduit significativement les conversions O-E-O par rapport aux commutateurs électriques commercialisés, puisqu’ils n’auront lieu que pour les paquets mis en mémoire d’attente. Nous défendons que le commutateur de paquets hybride opto-électronique satisfait les exigences en qualité de service et pourrait être une solution prometteuse pour réduire la consommation d’énergie des réseaux optiques. / Most transmission systems are based on optical fibers, carrying the traffic at a relatively low energy per bit. However, due to the lack of mature optical buffers, packet switching is still performed electrically. The required Optical-Electrical-Optical (O-E-O) conversions make the switching one of the areas with the fastest-growing energy consumption. A major challenge that must be met in designing future optical networks is curbing their energy consumption. Therefore, within this thesis, we investigate a hybrid optoelectronic switch which consists of an optical switching matrix supplemented with a shared electronic buffer. Performance analysis taking into account different classes of service, packet classifications and switch connectivity methods (WDM and/or SDM channels), shows that, thanks to the established switching strategies, the hybrid switch satisfies the requirements of all the different classes of service in terms of Packet Loss Rate, sustainable system load and latency. Moreover, it significantly reduces the O-E-O conversions compared to commercial off-the-shelf electrical switches, since they occur only for buffered packets. We defend that the hybrid opto-electronic packet switch meets the requirements on quality of service and could be a promising solution to reduce the energy consumption of optical networks.