Les performances des modulateurs de lumières à commande optique (OASLMs) à base de cristaux liquides (CLs) dépendent fortement des propriétés de la couche photosensible. Afin de concilier transparence, résolution latérale et production à bas coûts, les semi-conducteurs organiques apparaissent comme des candidats idéaux. Nous avons choisi d'utiliser un mélange P3HT:PCBM comme couche photosensible. Nos résultats ont montré que les cristaux liquides se réorientaient en fonction de l'intensité lumineuse seule et sans tension appliquée. Des mesures complémentaires indiquent que l'effet photovoltaïque est à l'origine de ce phénomène. Ce type de dispositif nous permet de moduler spatialement l'orientation des CLs et démontre son potentiel dans des applications liées à l'holographie. Un second type de dispositif intégrant des couches d'interfaces de PEIE et de PEDOT:PSS nous permet de contrôler l'orientation des CLs et donne de nouvelles pistes permettant de fabriquer des OASLMs autonomes. / The performances of liquid crystals (LCs) based optically addressed Spatial Light Modulators (OASLMs) strongly depends on the photosensitive layer properties. To accommodate device transparency, lateral resolution and low cost production, organic semiconductors appear as the ideal candidates. We chose to use a P3HT: PCBM blend as the photosensitive layer. Our results showed that the liquid crystals reorient according to the luminous intensity alone and without external power supply. Additional measurements indicate that the photovoltaic effect is at the origin of this phenomenon. This type of device allowed spatial modulation of the LCs orientation and demonstrates its potential in holographic applications. A second type of device integrating interfacial layers of PEIE and PEDOT: PSS allowed us to control the orientation of the LCs and gives promising routes towards the design of self-sustainable OASLMs.

Nos travaux de recherche ont été réalisés dans le but de développer de nouveaux nanomatériaux semi conducteurs transparents d‟alliages ZnxV1-xO en couches minces nanostructurées destinés aux applications dans les dispositifs optoélectroniques et en particulier dans les cellules photovoltaïques en couches minces à base de CIGS. L‟objectif principal recherché est de mettre en oeuvre des couches tampons/couches fenêtres à base de matériaux exempte de Cadmium et d‟Aluminium ou d‟Indium, comme le ZnxV1-xO respectivement à forte et à faible concentration de vanadium. L'originalité de mon travail est de réaliser à partir du même procédé de dépôt, deux éléments de la cellule CIGS en employant la technique PVD (rf-magnétron sputtering) dont les cibles de pulvérisation sont constituées de poudre nanocristallines préalablement synthétisées par voie sol-gel. Ce protocole d‟élaboration engendre une diminution conséquente du coût de production. Pour se faire, dans un premier temps des caractérisations structurales, morphologiques, optiques et électriques des films minces obtenus ont été menées et leurs paramètres physiques ont été mesurés pour déterminer les conditions optimales de dépôt des couches souhaitées. Les résultats obtenus montrent que des concentrations en vanadium de 20% et de 1% sont respectivement adéquates pour la réalisation des couches tampons et des Oxydes Transparents et Conducteurs (OTC) envisagés. Enfin, pour prévoir et améliorer les paramètres photovoltaïques, une nouvelle architecture de structure photovoltaïque de type Verre/(n+)Zn0.99V0.01O/(n)Zn0.80V0.20O/(p)Cu(In,Ga)Se2 /Mo a été définie et modélisée par simulation en utilisant les résultats expérimentaux déjà obtenus. Ce travail a permis de définir les critères auxquels doit répondre l‟absorbeur CIGS pour l‟obtention du meilleur rendement de conversion de la cellule proposée. / Our research work has been performed with the aim of developing new transparent semiconductor nanomaterials of ZnxV1-xO alloys in nanostructured thin films for applications in optoelectronic devices and in particular in photovoltaic cells in CIGS based thin films. Our main objective is to realize buffer layers/window layers based on materials not containing cadmium, aluminum nor indium, such as ZnxV1-xO at respectively high and low vanadium concentration. The originality of my work is in the realization, starting from the same deposition process, of two elements of the CIGS cell using the PVD (rf-magnetron sputtering) technique, in which the sputtering targets are based on nanocrystalline powders previously synthesized by the sol-gel process. This elaboration method gives rise to a significant decrease in the production cost. In order to achieve this, first of all structural, morphological, optical and electrical characterization of the thin films have been carried out and their physical parameters have been measured in order to determine the optimal conditions of deposition for the desired films. The obtained results exhibit that vanadium concentrations of 20% and 1% are respectively suitable for realizing the desired buffer layers and Transparent Conducting Oxides (TCO). Finally, in order to anticipate and improve the photovoltaic parameters, a new architecture of photovoltaic structure of the type Glass/(n+)Zn0.99V0.01O/(n)Zn0.80V0.20O/(p)Cu(In,Ga)Se2 /Mo has been defined and modeled by simulation using the experimental data already obtained. This work has allowed us to define the criteria which the CIGS absorber must respect in order to obtain the best conversion efficiency of the proposed cell.

Dans cette thèse, nous nous intéressons à la problématique de l’intégration de capteurs plasmoniques performants et bas coût sur des dispositifs de type smartphone, en vue d’applications de diagnostic biomédical. A cette fin, nous proposons deux biocapteurs « smart ». Premièrement, un système de détection colorimétrique à base de nanoparticules d’or est mis en œuvre pour détecter de l’ADN. Le système intègre une détection synchrone logicielle mise en œuvre au sein du smartphone, où les signaux physiques transitent par la voie audio. Le processus de diagnostic prend moins de 15 minutes pour une limite de détection de 0.77 nM, approximativement 6 fois meilleure que la sensibilité usuelle d’un spectromètre UV-Vis conventionnel, à temps de mesure identique. Dans une seconde partie, un capteur à résonance plasmon de surface en configuration de Kretschmann, se distinguant par une sensibilité à la phase optique, est développé. Le design monolithique et compact repose sur un interféromètre à dédoublement latéral et une modulation de phase. Le contrôle et la lecture du prototype s’effectue également par smartphone. La modulation de phase est de type sinusoïdale et une sensibilité importante est obtenue, autour de 2,3 10-6 RIU avec une dynamique de 7 10-3 RIU, chiffres obtenus pour une puce optique standard et un temps d’intégration de 100 ms. Ce second dispositif est ensuite testé pour la détection de protéines (Troponine I cardiaque), en fonctionnalisant la surface par ADN Tro4 / In this thesis, we investigate the possibility and potential for integration of portable optical biosensor for diagnostic purposes. To this end, we propose two “smart” biosensor systems. In the first part of this thesis, a DNA biosensor combining single-wavelength colorimetry and digital Lock-in Amplifier within a smartphone is proposed. Utilizing full advantage of audio channel and digital signal processing capacity of a smartphone, we have built a handheld DNA AuNp colorimetry biosensor. Based on the results, the diagnostic process takes only 15 minutes of reaction time while offering a limit of detection around 0.77 nM which is 6 times better than a desktop UV-Vis spectrometer.In second part of the thesis, a Shearing interferometer based Surface Plasmon Resonance (SiSPR) biosensor is proposed. SiSPR allows for phase sensitive detection on conventional Kretschmann configuration. Its monolithic design reduces optical parts, costs and allows portable application. The essence of SiSPR is a reflective layer in addition to plasmonic layer. To extract phase information from SiSPR, a sinusoidal phase modulation is achieved by modulation of the laser injection current. For a 100 ms measurement and a standard optical chip, the sensitivity of the SiSPR is around 2.3x10-6 RIU with a dynamic range of 7.0x10-3 RIU, which is better than amplitude SPR devices. Finally, Tro4 DNA surface modification on the SiSPR chip is demonstrated for future cardiac Troponin I diagnostic

Indiana University-Purdue University Indianapolis (IUPUI) / In the first part of this thesis, we investigate the propagation of quantum fluctuations in a nonlinear interferometer comprising under conditions of harmonic generation by computer simulations. This investigation assumes idealized conditions such as lossless and uniform nonlinear media, an ideal cavity and ideal photodetectors. After linearizing wave equations for harmonic generation with a coherent state input, we obtain equations for one dimensional spatial propagation of the mean field and quantum fluctuations for initial conditions set by arbitrary interferometer phase. We discover that fluctuations are de-squeezed in the X and Y quadratures as the interferometer phase is tuned. However, we discover that there is are quadratures P-Q obtained by rotating the X-Y quadratures for which squeezing is improved by factors of 10^9. We present a practical idea to implement rotation of X quadrature fluctuations to the Q quadrature by using an ideal empty optical cavity. Signal-to-Noise ratio of the nonlinear interferometer was calculated and compared with that of a linear interferometer with coherent state input. We calculated a maximum performance improvement of a factor of 60 for a normalized propagation length ζ0 = 3 under ideal conditions. In the second part of this thesis, we investigate experimentalarrangements to transfer atomic coherence from light to cesium atoms. We discuss the experimental arrangement to generate coherence under conditions of electromagnetically induced transparency (EIT). We measure a continuous wave EIT width of 7.18 MHz and present results for pulsed arrangements.

Thesis (M. Tech. (Engineering: Mechanical)) -- Central University of Technology, Free State, / The Centre for Rapid Prototyping and Manufacturing (CRPM) at the Central University of Technology, Free State (CUT) manufactures implants using Electro Optical Systems (EOS) titanium Ti-6Al-4V alloy powder (further referred to as EOS Ti64 powder) by means of Direct Metal Laser Sintering (DMLS) process on the EOSINT M 270 machine. For this reason, there is a need to characterise and acquire knowledge of the basic properties of direct metal laser sintered EOS titanium Ti-6Al-4V alloy samples (further referred to as DMLS Ti64 samples) under static tensile loading in order to provide the CRPM with engineering design data. The first objective of this Master’s study is to acquire the characteristics of EOS Ti64 powder in order to ascertain its suitability in the DMLS process. Secondly, the study aims to assess tensile properties and elastic constants of DMLS Ti64 samples produced from the set process parameters of EOSINT M 270 machine. Thirdly, it is to investigate microstructures of DMLS Ti64 samples subjected to different heat treatment techniques which will eventually assist in the determination of a suitable heat treatment technique that will yield higher ductility. Finally, the study aims to validate the static behaviour of DMLS Ti64 samples subjected to the static tensile loading up to a yield point in order to determine failure due to yielding. The samples were manufactured at CRPM Bloemfontein. The metallographic examinations, heat treatment and the determination of mechanical properties were done at the CSIR in Pretoria. Optical Microscope (OM) and Scanning Electron Microscope (SEM) were used to determine microstructures of DMLS Ti64 samples while Energy Dispersive X-Ray (EDX) analyses were performed using SEM. The samples were heat treated at temperatures of 700, 1000 and 1100°C respectively, and subsequently either cooled with the furnace, air or were water quenched. The mechanical property tests included tensile, hardness and determination of elastic constants. The static behaviour of DMLS Ti64 samples under static tensile load up to a yield point was predicted and verified using ABAQUSTM Finite Element Analysis (FEA). The stress-strain curves from ABAQUSTM were interpreted using MDSolid program. The point of interest was Von Mises yield stress at 0.2% offset, in order to determine failure due to yielding. EOS Ti64 powder particles were spherical in shape and the alpha and alpha+beta phases were identified. As-laser sintered samples possess a very fine and uniform alpha case with islands of martensitic plates; samples were brittle and showed low levels of ductility with an average elongation of 2.6% and an area reduction of 3.51%. Ultrasonic test results showed that DMLS Ti64 samples have Young’s modulus of 115 GPa, Shear modulus of 43 GP, a bulk modulus of 109 GPa and Poisson’s ratio of 0,323 while the density was 4.4 g/cm3. Slow cooling of DMLS Ti64 samples from 1000 and 1100oC resulted in a microstructure constituted more by the alpha phase of lower hardness than those from 700oC and as-laser sintered samples. High hardness was obtained by water quenching. The water quenched samples showed martensitic transformation and high hardness when compared to furnace cooled samples. Beta annealing tailored a microstructure of as-laser sintered samples into a lamellar structure with different lath sizes as per cooling rate. Beta annealing improved ductility levels up to 12.67% elongation for samples furnace cooled for 4 hours and even higher to 18.11% for samples furnace cooled for 34 hours, while area reduction increased to 25.94% and 33.39%, respectively. Beta annealing conversely reduced yield strength by 19.89% and ultimate tensile strength was reduced by 23.66%. The calculated maximum Von Mises stresses found were similar to the FEA interpreted results. The average percentage error, without the stress concentration factor, was approximately 8.29%; with the stress concentration factor included, it was 0.07%. The small reaction forces induced in both x-axis and z-axis contributed to this error of 0.07% between the calculations and ABAQUSTM FEA results. Samples that were not heat treated fell outside the Von Mises criterion and failed due to yielding. This justified the brittleness found in the tensile test results where elongation and area reduction were 2.6% and 3.51% respectively. However, all samples that were heat treated fell within the Von Mises criterion. The objectives of this study were achieved; the mechanical properties were similar to those of standard specification for wrought annealed Ti-6Al-4V alloy for surgical implant applications and EOS GmbH manufacturer’s material data sheet. DMLS Ti64 samples must be beta annealed in order to attain higher levels of ductility. A recommendation was made to further investigate the effect of heat treatment on the other mechanical properties. Furthermore, detailed results of basic properties of DMLS Ti64 samples are provided in the appendices in chart format and were written on a CD disc.

Durante as últimas três décadas, a epitaxia por feixe molecular se estabeleceu como uma técnica excelente para o crescimento de camadas semicondutoras de alta qualidade, tanto para a construção de dispositivos quanto para a pesquisa básica. No entanto ainda não existe um método universalmente aceito para obter-se camadas dopadas do tipo p nesta técnica de crescimento. Neste trabalho, estudamos, otimizamos e comparamos três diferentes métodos para a dopagem de camadas de GaAs do tipo p. Dois desses métodos exploraram o caráter anfotérico do silício em substratos de GaAs(311)A (através da mudança das condições de crescimento) e GaAs(100) (aplicando uma nova técnica chamada epitaxia assistida por gotas (droplets) de gálio). O terceiro método foi baseado no uso do carbono, cujas propriedades como dopante do tipo p são bem conhecidas em outras técnicas de crescimento epitaxial, mas pouco estudadas na epitaxia por feixe molecular. Para verificar a qualidade das camadas dopadas obtidas, crescemos estruturas como poços quânticos parabólicos com alta mobilidade de buracos e dispositivos optoeletrônicos como diodos emissores de luz e laseres. / During the last three decades, molecular-beam epitaxy has emerged as an excellent technique for the growth of high-quality semiconductor layers both for device construction and for basic research. In spite of this fact, there is still a lack of a universally accepted method to obtain p-type doped layers by this growth technique. In this work, we studied, optimized and compared three different methods to get p-type GaAs layers. Two of these methods exploited the amphoteric behavior of silicon atoms both on GaAs(311)A (by changing the growth conditions) and on GaAs(100) (by employing a new growth mode called droplet-assisted epitaxy) substrates. The third method was based on the use of carbon, whose properties as a p-type dopant in GaAs layers are well known in other epitaxial techniques but scarcely investigated in molecular-beam epitaxy. In order to check the quality of the doped layers, we grew structures like high hole-mobility parabolic quantum wells and optoelectronic devices like light-emitting diodes and lasers.

The use of optical input/output (I/O) interconnects, in addition to electrical I/Os, is a promising approach for achieving high-bandwidth, chip-to-board communications required for future high-performance gigascale chip-based systems. While numerous efforts are underway to investigate the integration of optoelectronics and silicon microelectronics, virtually no work has been reported relating to testing of such chips. The objective of this research is to explore methods that enable wafer-level testing of gigascale chips having electrical and optical I/O interconnects. A major challenge in achieving this is to develop probe modules which would allow high-precision, temporary interconnection of a multitude of electrical and optical I/Os, in a chip-size area, to automated test equipment. A probe module would need to do this in a rapid, step-and-repeat manner across all the chips on the wafer. In this work, two candidate probe modules were devised, batch-fabricated on Si using microfabrication techniques, and successfully demonstrated. The first probe module consists of compliant electrical probes (10^3 probes/cm^2) fabricated alongside grating-in-waveguide optical probes. The second module consists of micro-opto-electro-mechanical-systems (MOEMS)-based microsocket probes (10^4 probes/cm^2) to interface a chip with polymer pillar-based electrical and optical I/Os. High-density through-wafer interconnects are an essential attribute in both probe substrates for transferring electrical and optical signals to the substrate back-side. Fabrication and characterization of metal-clad, metal-filled, and polymer-filled through-wafer interconnects as well as process integration with probe substrate fabrication are described and numerous possible redistribution schemes are explicated. Chips with optical and electrical I/Os are an emerging technology, and one that test engineers are likely to encounter in the near future. The contributions of this thesis are to help understand and address the issues relating to joint electrical and optical testing during manufacturing.

CAPES / Este trabalho tem como eixo principal as redes PON (Passive Optical Network), pois, por não terem partes ativas entre a OLT (Optical Line Terminal) e as ONU (Optical Network Units), são a opção mais interessante atualmente para redução dos custos das comunicações ópticas. Foram analisadas as ONUs incolores (trabalham em qualquer comprimento de onda), e dentro deste tema foram feitas simulações e ensaios experimentais em fontes ópticas de baixo custo (todas com encapsulamento TO), de forma a demonstrar o desempenho delas dentro das redes PONs. Foram propostas duas novas ONUs: uma com auto realimentação interna para o sinal semente e outra para ser utilizada em uma configuração de RoF (Radio Over Fiber) que utiliza RSOAs de baixo custo e consegue transmitir canais em SCM até QAM1024. / This work has as a main axis the Passive Optical Networks (PON). It does not have active parts between the Optical Line Terminal (OLT) and Optical Network Units (ONUs) and it is currently the most interesting option for reducing optical communication costs. Colorless ONUs , those that work at any wavelength, were analyzed and simulations and experimental tests in low-cost optical sources (TO encapsulation s) were made in order to demonstrate the performance of these PON equipments . Two new ONUs were proposed: one with internal selfseed feedback and another one in a Radio Over Fiber (RoF) configuration which uses low cost RSOAs and can transmit SCM channels to 1024QAM formats.

Durante as últimas três décadas, a epitaxia por feixe molecular se estabeleceu como uma técnica excelente para o crescimento de camadas semicondutoras de alta qualidade, tanto para a construção de dispositivos quanto para a pesquisa básica. No entanto ainda não existe um método universalmente aceito para obter-se camadas dopadas do tipo p nesta técnica de crescimento. Neste trabalho, estudamos, otimizamos e comparamos três diferentes métodos para a dopagem de camadas de GaAs do tipo p. Dois desses métodos exploraram o caráter anfotérico do silício em substratos de GaAs(311)A (através da mudança das condições de crescimento) e GaAs(100) (aplicando uma nova técnica chamada epitaxia assistida por gotas (droplets) de gálio). O terceiro método foi baseado no uso do carbono, cujas propriedades como dopante do tipo p são bem conhecidas em outras técnicas de crescimento epitaxial, mas pouco estudadas na epitaxia por feixe molecular. Para verificar a qualidade das camadas dopadas obtidas, crescemos estruturas como poços quânticos parabólicos com alta mobilidade de buracos e dispositivos optoeletrônicos como diodos emissores de luz e laseres. / During the last three decades, molecular-beam epitaxy has emerged as an excellent technique for the growth of high-quality semiconductor layers both for device construction and for basic research. In spite of this fact, there is still a lack of a universally accepted method to obtain p-type doped layers by this growth technique. In this work, we studied, optimized and compared three different methods to get p-type GaAs layers. Two of these methods exploited the amphoteric behavior of silicon atoms both on GaAs(311)A (by changing the growth conditions) and on GaAs(100) (by employing a new growth mode called droplet-assisted epitaxy) substrates. The third method was based on the use of carbon, whose properties as a p-type dopant in GaAs layers are well known in other epitaxial techniques but scarcely investigated in molecular-beam epitaxy. In order to check the quality of the doped layers, we grew structures like high hole-mobility parabolic quantum wells and optoelectronic devices like light-emitting diodes and lasers.

Systeme aus konjugierten Molekülen und Graphenen bergen hohes Potential für Anwendungen. Die Untersuchung ihrer Wechselwirkungsmechanismen ist wichtig für die Entwicklung neuer Anwendungen und Fokus dieser Arbeit: Optische Mikroskopie, Spektroskopie und Rasterkraftmikroskopie werden komplementär verwendet, um die optischen und strukturellen Eigenschaften solcher Systeme zu erforschen. Insbesondere werden (i) die Permeationsbarriere-Eigenschaften von Graphen in-situ auf einem halbleitenden Polymerfilm quantifiziert. Weiterhin werden (ii) die Fluoreszenz- und (iii) Raman-Emission von konjugierten Molekülen in der Nähe von Graphen untersucht und die entsprechenden Kopplungsmechanismen diskutiert. (i) Graphene zeigen sich als effizienter Schutz des empfindlichen Polymers [Poly(3-hexylthiophen)] vor Degeneration durch Sauerstoff und Wasser aus der Umgebungsluft. Dies legt nahe, dass Graphene nicht nur als transparente Elektrode, sondern gleichzeitig als Barriereschicht in künftigen optoelektronischen Bauelementen dienen können. (ii) Es wird gezeigt, dass die bekannten optischen Eigenschaften von Graphen die Existenz stark lokalisierter Graphen-Plasmonen im Sichtbaren implizieren. Durch Verwendung von nanoskaligen Emittern [Rhodamin 6G (R6G)], welche die für effiziente Anregung von Graphen-Plasmonen im optischen Frequenzbereich notwendigen großen Wellenvektor bereitstellen, wird Graphen-Plasmonen-induzierte (GPI) Fluoreszenz-Anregungsverstärkung von nahezu 3 Größenordnungen nachgewiesen. Demnach ist Graphen für plasmonische Bauelemente im Sichtbaren interessant. (iii) Außerdem wird GPI Verstärkung des Raman-Querschnittes von R6G um 1 Größenordnung nachgewiesen. Zukünftige Entwicklung von Antennen für zusätzliche direkte Anregung von Graphen-Plasmonen aus dem Fernfeld macht Graphen vielversprechend für leistungsfähige oberflächenverstärkte Raman-Spektroskopie. Zusammenfassend wurden neue und anwendungsrelevante Einblicke in die analysierten Systeme gewonnen. / Systems of conjugated molecules and graphenes bear high application potential. The investigation of their interaction mechanisms is important for design of new applications and the focus of this thesis: Optical microscopy, spectroscopy and scanning force microscopy are complementarily used to explore the optical and structural properties of such systems. In particular (i) the permeation barrier properties of graphene are quantified in-situ on a semiconducting polymer film. Furthermore (ii) the fluorescence and (iii) Raman emission of conjugated molecules in proximity to graphene are investigated and the respective coupling mechanisms are discussed. (i) Graphenes are found to efficiently protect the sensitive polymer [poly(3-hexylthiophene)] from degradation by oxygen and water from the ambient atmosphere. This suggests that graphenes can not only serve as transparent electrode, but simultaneously as a barrier layer in future optoelectronic devices. (ii) It is shown that the known optical properties of graphene imply the existence of strongly localized graphene plasmons in the visible. Using nanoscale emitters [rhodamine 6G (R6G)] that provide the high wave vectors necessary to efficiently excite graphene plasmons at optical frequencies, graphene plasmon induced (GPI) fluorescence excitation enhancement by nearly 3 orders of magnitude is demonstrated. Graphene is thus interesting for plasmonic devices in the visible. (iii) In addition GPI enhancement of the Raman cross section of R6G by 1 order of magnitude is demonstrated. The future design of antennas for additional direct farfield excitation of graphene plasmons makes graphene promising for powerful surface enhanced Raman spectroscopy. In summary new and application relevant insights were gained into the studied systems.