To be modern and modernity are among notions about which people frequently talk past each other at all levels. There is no settled meaning of modernity so far. On the one hand, academics take different approaches to the notion, resulting in more than three theories of modernity. In their everyday life, non-scholars conceptualise modernity based on its immediate effects. This research stems from the same premises that there is no single notion of modernity nor can people have a universal understanding of it. This study endeavours to explore modernity in Bena orature. It attempts to expose what Bena people think of modernity as they present opinions in their aesthetic communication - orature. To meet that aim, the study adopted grounded theory which enables the researcher to develop a theory from available data. Bena orature was collected, analysed, and using grounded theory methods, I formulated the Bena theory of modernity. Apart from Bena orature, post-performance discussions, additional informal discussions, and secondary data from among the Bena and other societies were employed to accomplish the objectives of the study. In the analysis of data, several categories emerged, one of which appeared to be the strongest. In grounded theory, this is referred to as the core category. The core category is the theme or concept which is regarded as the main issue discussed in the society under study. In this study, wellbeing was determined to be the core category over and above the others because of its ability to explain other categories. It was revealed that wellbeing is one of the concepts which not only surfaces in Bena society but to which many other issues are related, both in aesthetic and ordinary communication. Sometimes, it may appear as if people disagree on several issues. This might translate into disagreeing on some truths amongst themselves, but in fact, they disagree on how to enhance wellbeing among Bena. Owing to that, the research ends by formulating a theory of modernity of wellbeing. Put differently, what really concerns Bena society in this modern world is attempting to enhance wellbeing, both at the individual and societal levels.:TABLE OF CONTENTS ACKNOWLEDGEMENT i DEDICATION IV ABSTRACT V TABLE OF CONTENTS VI 1 GENERAL INTRODUCTION 1.1 Introduction 1.2 The Background to the Study 1.3 Statement of the Problem 1.4 Objectives of the Study 1.5 The Notion of Orature 1.6 The Notion of Modernity 1.7 Investigating Modernity in Orature 1.8 Position of the Researcher 2 LITERATURE REVIEW AND CONCEPTUAL BACKGROUND 2.1 Introduction 2.2 Approaches to Orature 2.2.1 Performance-centred Approach 2.2.2 Text-centred Theories 2.3 The Emergence and Development of Performance Theory 2.3.1.1 Performance Theory 2.3.1.2 Performer – Audience Relationship 2.3.1.3 Orature Performance Patterns 2.3.1.4 Functions of Orature Performances 2.3.1.5 Changing Nature of Orature in the African Context 2.3.1.6 Criticisms of Performance Theory 2.3.2 Re-emergence of Text-centred Approach 2.4 Modernity 2.5 The Origin and Development of Modernity 2.5.1 Modernity as Western Civilisation 2.5.2 Multiple Modernities (Alternative Modernities) 2.5.3 Modernity as Independent Civilization 2.5.4 Modernity as Interconnectedness 2.5.5 Modernity as Contemporaneity 2.6 Tradition versus Modernity Dichotomy 2.7 Social Construction through Narratives 2.7.1 Background to the Notion of Social Construction 2.7.2 Main Arguments of Social Construction 2.7.2.1 The Idea of Frames 2.7.3 Social Construction through Narratives 2.8 Conclusion 3 METHODOLOGY 3.1 Introduction 3.2 Origin and History of Grounded Theory 3.3 Undertaking Grounded Theory 3.3.1 Category Development 3.3.2 Substantive Coding 3.3.3 Theoretical Sampling 3.3.4 Memo Writing 3.3.5 Theoretical Sensitivity 3.3.6 Selective and Theoretical Coding 3.4 Symbolic Interactionism 3.5 Complementary Theories 3.6 Applying Grounded Theory 3.7 Data Collection 3.7.1 Research Area 3.7.2 Data Collection 3.7.2.1 Participant Observation 3.7.2.2 Interviews 3.7.2.3 Group Interviews (Focus Group Discussion) 3.7.2.4 Recording Performance, Interviews and Group Interviews 3.7.3 Reviewing Bena Documents 3.8 Data Analysis 3.9 Conclusion 4 A DESCRIPTION OF THE BENA WORLD OF ORATURE 4.1 Introduction 4.2 The Bena People 4.3 Contemporary Language Composition 4.4 Elements of Orature 4.4.1 Elements of Orature among the Bena 4.4.1.1 Tales 4.4.1.2 Tale Performers 4.4.1.3 Tale Performability 4.4.2 Performer-Audience Relationship among the Bena 4.4.2.1 Indexical References 4.4.3 Bena Songs 4.4.3.1 Bena Song Performers 4.4.4 The Bena Wedding Songs 4.4.4.1 Themes and Social Functions of the Bena Songs 4.4.5 The Bena Marriage Procedures 4.4.6 Grave Building among the Bena 4.4.7 Political Meetings 4.5 Conclusion 5 PERFORMING MODERNITY 5.1 Introduction 5.2 Uwatsalino (Usasa) 5.3 Uwukola (Romanticism) 5.3.1 Othering through Language 5.3.1.1 Monsterisation of Language 5.3.1.2 Emphasis 5.3.1.3 Euphemism 5.3.2 Fear of the Unknown 5.4 Ulutengamaso (Wellbeing) 5.4.1 Welfare 5.4.2 Grave Building 5.4.3 Christianity and Witchcraft 5.4.4 Architecture and Clothing 5.5 Uwukangafu (Bravery) 5.5.1 Courage, Perseverance and Cleverness 5.6 Kolatila (Duty) 5.6.1 Self-Reliance and Food Security 5.6.2 Thanksgiving and Labour 5.6.3 Marriage, Procreation, and Discrimination 5.7 Uwunu (Ubuntu/Humanity) 5.7.1 Obedience, Hospitality and Honesty 5.7.2 Relationship with Other People 5.7.3 Love and Harmony 5.7.4 Praises 5.7.5 Mourning 5.7.6 Humanity and Mortality 5.8 Core Category 5.9 Conclusion 6 MODERNITY OF WELLBEING AMONG THE BENA 6.1 Introduction 6.2 Wellbeing (Ulutengamaso) 6.3 Wellbeing and Other Categories 6.3.1 Wellbeing and Uwunu (Ubuntu/Humanity) 6.3.2 Wellbeing and Duty (Kolatila) 6.3.3 Wellbeing and Uwukola (Romanticism) 6.3.4 Wellbeing and Uwukangafu (Bravery) 6.3.5 Wellbeing and Uwatsalino (Usasa) 6.4 Grounding a Theory of Modernity as Wellbeing 6.5 The Relationship between Modernity as Wellbeing and Other Theories of Modernity 6.6 Conclusion 7 GENERAL SUMMARY AND CONCLUSION 7.1 Introduction 7.2 General Summary 7.3 Conclusion 8 REFERENCE 9 APPENDICES Paraphrased Bena Tales 10. ERKLÄRUNG

This dissertation takes the approach of a qualitative case study whose primary subject is Alhaji Papa Susso, a distinct and compelling representative of griot culture, who was born in The Gambia, but who now resides in the U.S., yet maintains his griot identity. The findings from this research provide evidence that the griot, in his quest to support himself abroad while honoring the traditions of his heritage, is actively participating in the purposeful dissemination of griot culture in the U.S. and beyond. Though he may be cultivating genuine interest in his skills and in the oral canon of histories and epic tales that he maintains, he cannot control reception and appropriation of his culture. Further, the findings suggest there is a crosscutting backlash where the influence of technology is concerned, in that, while it provides a means for recording and preserving the griot’s performative art, it also distracts West African youth and diminishes their interest in acquiring and maintaining the tools and instrumentation of their caste-born heritage. The main conclusions drawn from this study suggest the griot feels compelled in many ways to spread his culture beyond the limits of his original, regional seat in order to preserve and promote it, but in doing so, he is changing his culture, and exposing it to audiences who are not sufficiently encultured to apprehend fully its depth and meaning. Furthermore, technology may be a useful tool in preserving the griot’s art in West Africa and abroad, but the static nature of recording robs the griot’s performance of its dynamic, flexible and culturally reflective power. Ultimately, it is the goal of this dissertation to actualize Stake’s (1995) assertion that “the function of research is not necessarily to map and conquer the world but to sophisticate the beholding of it” (p. 43); it is the goal of this dissertation to illuminate and understand, to bear careful witness to a facet of cultural expansion, to a contemporary phenomenon, to a particular, unique and valuable human experience.

Ce travail interroge les relations entre langue écrite et langue orale et les effets de la représentation de l’oralité et du dialecte dans l’écriture littéraire. Plus spécifiquement, il établit un cadre théorique d’analyse stylistique permettant de faire émerger la poétique du parler populaire dans l’œuvre de Barrytown de Roddy Doyle. Cette étude s’articule autour de trois chapitres. Les deux premiers sont à visée théorique, et ont pour objectif de mettre en place les outils stylistiques, linguistiques et littéraires à partir desquels l’étude du corpus est abordée. Ainsi, après un retour diachronique et synchronique sur les rapports qu’entretiennent les deux media de communication orale et écrite, nous établissons un cadre d’analyse stylistique de la représentation de l’oralité et du dialecte dans la littérature. Nous étudions ensuite cette problématique plus spécifiquement dans le contexte irlandais, puisque la littérature et la culture irlandaises sont marquées par un la tradition orale. Cela nous conduit à une description détaillée du dialecte anglais-irlandais sous l’angle de la grammaire, du lexique et de l’accent. Nous abordons enfin les effets de la représentation de l’oralité et de l’irlandité dans l’œuvre barrytownienne de Roddy Doyle et faisons émerger la poétique du parler populaire qui l’anime. / This study focuses on the relations between spoken and written language and on the effects created by the representation of orality and dialect in literary writing. More specifically, it proposes a theoretical framework of stylistic analysis which allows for the study of the poetics of popular language in Roddy Doyle’s Barrytown novels. This study is divided into three chapters. The first two chapters aim to define the stylistic, linguistic and literary tools that are used in the third chapter in order to carry out the corpus analysis. This study starts with a diachronic and a synchronic overview of the relationship between the oral and written media of communication. A workable framework for the stylistic analysis of the representation of orality and dialect in literature is then established. The second chapter considers this issue in an Irish context. Indeed, a strong oral tradition has always been present in Ireland and its impact is still felt in literature and culture. The linguistic situation in Ireland is studied from the point of view of grammar, lexicon and accent. Finally, the third chapter applies the framework previously presented and explores the effects created by the representation of orality and Irishness in Roddy Doyle’s Barrytown novels. It finally exposes the poetics of popular language.

Vave is generally defined as a corpus of agricultural songs as they are sung and performed by Bajuni farmers - an ethnic subgroup of the Swahili - on the eve of burning the bush, a stage of slash and burn cultivation. Although the song’s main theme is agriculture and each cultivation step in particular is given attention, an analysis of the aesthetics of Vave from the viewpoint of oral literature unearths the secret and sacred dimension of Vave performance. Death, bereavement, resurrection, and spirituality are, besides agricultural cultivation, the basic aspects of the Vave. Indeed the Vave performance may be more correctly recognised as an ancient religious rite which has ancestral worship as a central issue. Although the worship of ancestors is irreconcilable with the Islamic belief system, Vave is still performed by the Muslim Bajuni farmers today. This essay attempts to outline in which way the ancestors are annually remembered, revived or actualised in the present by Bajuni farmers through the performance of an oral tradition.

The title of this paper gives three variants of what historically is the same name: Koti = the present-day indigenous name of Koti Island; Ngoji = the older form of the same name; Angoche = the official name of the town, adapted from the name of the AKoti people EKoti is the language of Angoche, a town on the coast of Nampula Province, in Mozambique. EKoti is in most respects very similar to the neighbouring coastal varieties of Makhuwa, but it also has many lexical and morphological items that are derived from Swahili. My colleague F. U. Mucanheia, co-author of our forthcoming grammar of EKoti, has recorded a story about the origin of Koti Island and its people. In the present paper, I summarize the text of this oral tradition, and I compare it to the dynastic traditions from Angoche and to those found in the Kilwa chronicle, pointing out differences but also establishing links.

nÃo hà / CoordenaÃÃo de AperfeÃoamento de Pessoal de NÃvel Superior / Se, por um lado, a Ãrea de Estudos da TraduÃÃo no Brasil, por sua prÃpria natureza interdisciplinar, tem ampliado o diÃlogo com outras Ãreas, por outro lado, ainda hà muito o que ser pesquisado, especialmente, no tocante à natureza cultural da disciplina (SALGUEIRO, 2015) e no seu papel na manutenÃÃo de culturas e tradiÃÃes (RISÃRIO, 1993; 1996), embora seja esse papel uma nova realidade no paradigma da disciplina. Uma aproximaÃÃo com o campo de estudos da Antropologia à fundamental nesse sentido, especialmente, em diÃlogos que investigam a influÃncia e funÃÃo da traduÃÃo na manutenÃÃo de tradiÃÃes culturais, com Ãnfase naquelas relativas à oralidade e à produÃÃo poÃtica oral de um povo, suas oraturas (BROSE, 2015). Este estudo pretende investigar as toadas cantadas atualmente no culto Xangà do Recife comparando-as com as recolhidas e traduzidas por Carvalho (1993) do ponto de vista de sua relaÃÃo com o mito (MALINOWSKI, 1986 e ALLEAU, 1976) e com a performance (FINNEGAN, 1982). Nesse processo analÃtico, irei comparar as traduÃÃes ââficcionaisââ que reinterpretam o conteÃdo semÃntico desses textos no atual ambiente de performance e recepÃÃo e que foram realizadas pelos adeptos do culto, com as traduÃÃes semÃnticas a fim de identificar o quanto sua significaÃÃo mudou ou foi recriada. Irei tambÃm identificar as estratÃgias utilizadas pelos adeptos do culto na criaÃÃo de suas traduÃÃes ââficcionaisââ, apontando pistas para a compreensÃo do modo como o Candomblà và e interpreta o mundo, alÃm de investigar como e em que ambiente as traduÃÃes ââficcionaisââ surgem e, quando divergem das semÃnticas, em que extensÃo o fazem e sob a influÃncia de quais aspectos. As traduÃÃes ââficcionaisââ sÃo vistas sob a Ãtica da transcriaÃÃo poÃtica, conforme proposta por Campos (1962; 1967; 1984; 1985; 1987). Esta pesquisa pretende lanÃar olhares renovados sobre as tradiÃÃes orais afro-brasileiras a partir do ponto de vista de uma teoria da poesia oral (ZUMTHOR, 2010). Acredito que essa nova interface teÃricometodolÃgica ampliarà a compreensÃo de conceitos-chave dos Estudos da TraduÃÃo, como o tradutor e a obra (CHARTIER, 2012), alÃm de trazer uma contribuiÃÃo para um melhor entendimento do conceito de traduÃÃo ââficcionalââ introduzido por Carvalho em seu estudo. / If the area of Translation Studies in Brazil, by its very interdisciplinary nature, has broadened the dialogue with other areas, there is still much to be researched, especially regarding the cultural nature of the discipline (SALGUEIRO, 2015) and its role in the maintenance of cultures and traditions (RISÃRIO, 1993; 1996). An approach from the field of Anthropology is fundamental in this sense, especially in dialogues that investigate the influence and function of translation in the maintenance of cultural traditions, with emphasis on studies related to orality and the production of oral literature, orature (BROSE , 2015). This study intends to investigate the songs currently sung in the Xangà do Recife cult, comparing them to those collected and translated by Carvalho (1993). The point of view will be their relationship with myth (MALINOWSKI, 1986 and ALLEAU, 1976) and performance (FINNEGAN, 1982). In this analytical process, I shall compare the 'fictional' translations with 'literal' translations. 'Fictional' translations are reinterpretations of the semantic content of the original texts in the current performance and reception environment and which were carried out by worshipers. I intend to identify how the meaning has changed or has been recreated. It is my intentionto analyse the strategies used by worshipers in creating their "fictional" translations, pointing out clues to understand how Candomblà sees and interprets the world. I shall investigate how and in what environment the "fictional" translations ' arise, and when they differ from the 'literal' ones, to what extent they do so and under the influence of which aspects. The "fictional" translations are seen from the perspective of âpoetic transcreationâ as proposed by Campos (1962; 1967; 1984; 1985; 1987). This research intends to open new vistas for the Afro- Brazilian oral traditions from the point of view of a theory of oral poetry (ZUMTHOR, 2010). I believe that this new theoretical interface might broaden the understanding of key concepts of Translation Studies, such as the translator and the work (CHARTIER, 2012), in addition to contributing to a better understanding of the concept of "fictional" translation introduced by Carvalho in his study.

L’orature est un concept encore peu exploité dans la recherche littéraire. Historiquement rattachées aux classes populaires, les œuvres orales ont été mises à l’écart de l’étude d’une littérature dite sérieuse. La philologie classique du 20ème siècle a vu advenir une approche nouvelle des poèmes homériques, justement dans leurs liens avec une tradition orale antérieure. Tant dans la forme que dans le fond, les grandes épopées grecques sont reliées à une conception orale de la littérature et du soi. Le collectif littéraire est remis au goût du jour, mais pas de la manière dont il avait été envisagé auparavant : la question n’est plus de savoir si Homère était seul derrière son document, mais plutôt de réussir à concevoir le processus littéraire qui accoucha de l’Odyssée comme une co-création à grande échelle, des sources du mythe jusqu’à sa transmission. En réhabilitant ces thématiques, ces chercheurs ont ouvert la porte à une nouvelle perception de la littérature. Cette époque coïncide par ailleurs à l’émergence de nouvelles traditions littéraires scripturaires. L’emprise coloniale et esclavagiste s’effritait devant les volontés d’indépendances, et de ce vivier politique émergea nécessairement la question culturelle. Ces populations se retrouvaient munies d’une langue et d’une écriture qu’elles n’avaient pas choisies. Les traditions orales présentes initialement dans ces communautés rentrèrent en contact avec la maîtrise de l’écriture, et l’époque contemporaine voit fleurir de nombreuses jeunes traditions littéraires, dans lesquelles se retrouvent de multiples éléments de l’oralité, qui forment les composantes de l’orature. Ma réflexion s’articule autour de ces deux pôles : la compréhension occidentale de l’orature, à travers les études homériques ; et les traces et pratiques de l’orature dans de nouvelles traditions littéraires, principalement dans le cas de la littérature francophone antillaise. Mener cette étude en miroir me permet de combler mutuellement les lacunes de chaque approche et de m’offrir un panorama plus complet sur l’orature. Resurgit alors la notion de collectivité, ainsi qu’une conception socio-politique de la littérature. Les composantes de l’orature exacerbent la dimension fédératrice de la littérature. / Orature is still an under-exploited concept in the literary field. Traditionally linked to the less educated classes, oral literature was ignored by research on the so-called serious literature. During the 20th century, a new approach of Homeric poems emerged from classical philology specialists. This approach presupposed a strong influence of a previous oral tradition on Homer’s epics. Both the form and the substance of those epics are tied to an oral conception of the self and literature. The idea of collective writing reappears, but not in the way it was conceptualized before. The question was no longer whether or not Homer was the sole author of the texts bearing his name. Rather, this research sought to conceive the literary process leading to the writing of The Odyssey as a collective creation, from earlier sources of the myth to its ongoing transmission, a process that exceeds any single life span. In revitalizing this perspective, researchers paved the way to a new perception of literature. This renewal overlaps with the emergence of new written traditions. Slavery and colonialism collapsed in conjunction with the will to independence, and the cultural issue arose against the backdrop of this political context. Those decolonizing populations were left with foreign languages and an unrelated writing-based structuring of society. The initial oral traditions present in those communities merged with literacy, and the contemporary era is filled with emergent literary traditions. These new literatures bear the marls of orality which constitute the orature component. In this contest, my study focuses on two aspects. First, I analyze the western comprehension of orature as exemplified in the Homeric epics. Secondly, I examine the remnants and practices of orature in emergent literary traditions, especially in the French Antilles’ literature. Studying those two elements allows for a better comprehension of the phenomenon of orature. Which underscores the collective and sociopolitical dimension of literature.

Vave is generally defined as a corpus of agricultural songs as they are sung and performed by Bajuni farmers - an ethnic subgroup of the Swahili - on the eve of burning the bush, a stage of slash and burn cultivation. Although the song’s main theme is agriculture and each cultivation step in particular is given attention, an analysis of the aesthetics of Vave from the viewpoint of oral literature unearths the secret and sacred dimension of Vave performance. Death, bereavement, resurrection, and spirituality are, besides agricultural cultivation, the basic aspects of the Vave. Indeed the Vave performance may be more correctly recognised as an ancient religious rite which has ancestral worship as a central issue. Although the worship of ancestors is irreconcilable with the Islamic belief system, Vave is still performed by the Muslim Bajuni farmers today. This essay attempts to outline in which way the ancestors are annually remembered, revived or actualised in the present by Bajuni farmers through the performance of an oral tradition.

The title of this paper gives three variants of what historically is the same name: Koti = the present-day indigenous name of Koti Island; Ngoji = the older form of the same name; Angoche = the official name of the town, adapted from the name of the AKoti people EKoti is the language of Angoche, a town on the coast of Nampula Province, in Mozambique. EKoti is in most respects very similar to the neighbouring coastal varieties of Makhuwa, but it also has many lexical and morphological items that are derived from Swahili. My colleague F. U. Mucanheia, co-author of our forthcoming grammar of EKoti, has recorded a story about the origin of Koti Island and its people. In the present paper, I summarize the text of this oral tradition, and I compare it to the dynastic traditions from Angoche and to those found in the Kilwa chronicle, pointing out differences but also establishing links.

This thesis utilizes the theory of feminism in all its implied branches in an attempt to critically review the subtle and sometimes deliberate subjugation of women in general and South Africa in particular. This occurs, in spite of the fact that there are laws in place that are meant to discourage women abuse. Juxtaposing this is the perspective conception of women, looking at themselves as subjects of virtue who deserve equal treatment to any other human being. It is through some oral forms that this reflection could be tested. Praise poetry, in the hands of a creative artist opens up a world of human emotions that could not be easily seen or felt, and yet it can simultaneously be used to manipulate situations. Language therefore could be seen as a powerful double-edged instrument. The patriarchal system, in this thesis, is exposed as that holy ideology turned unholy to achieve condescending agendas against women. The thin light of respect demonstrated by the traditionalist thinking is made to disappear into thin air, especially when contaminated by Western ideas. It is the resoluteness and the fair obstinacy of some both traditional and modern women that determinedly stood up to conscientise the world in terms of respect for human life irrespective. In this research, an exploration of literary elements within four Nguni languages, that is Siswati, isiZulu, isiNdebele, and isiXhosa reveals the singularity of purpose, for these elements to be manipulated to achieve domineering intentions. Be that as it may, tibongo (praise poems/ praises) of outstanding women who have served in traditional leadership in these language groups give reason to challenge any idea that women should by virtue be relegated to the back seat. Through these tibongo it becomes apparent that because of the women leaders’ stubborn fairness and unparalleled foresight, they have become personifications of democratic values and as such, role models and symbolic hope not only for the empowerment of women, but also for their total liberation from all negative perceptions and oppressions. / African Languages / D. Litt. et Phil. (African Languages)