Glacial runoff from the Tian Shan and Altai Mountains is an important water resource, especially for people living in the arid areas of Central Asia. Measured water volumes from glaciers have decreased, and glacier area have shrunk with 50-90% since the Little Ice Age. Lack of knowledge regarding glaciers in high mountain areas, and the impact from climate change makes this an important field to investigate. This thesis focuses on topographic features and their impact on spatial glaciation patterns; today and during the global last glacial maximum, 19-30 thousand years ago (ka). From selected marginal moraines in the Tian Shan and Altai mountains, with a deglaciation age between 19-30 ka, an analysis was created in ArcMap (GIS, Geographic Information System) with 1 arc second resolution ASTER GDEM2 (Digital Elevation Model) and in Google Earth. An elevation profile, hypsometry and mapping were created for the analysis. The interpretations made from the limited dataset resulted in topographic features affecting the glaciation extension today and percentage of decreasing glacier area since 19-30 ka, to be connected to north/south-facing direction of the drainage area and the elevation. Drainage areas experiencing the highest percentage of glacial shrinkage were southfacing and/or at elevation below 3961 m a.s.l. / Central Asia Paleoglaciology Project

Miljöer med äldre ekar hyser höga naturvärden och är viktiga för den biologiska mångfalden. Under århundraden var ekar i Sverige reglerade av kronan i syfte att kontrollera tillgången på skeppsvirke, det var således förbjudet att avverka ek på krono- och skattejord. Sedan 1800-talet har Sveriges ekbestånd fragmenterats som följd av en rad faktorer. Dessa förändringar har haft en negativ inverkan på ekberoende arter, vars livsmiljöer idag endast är spillror av vad de en gång har varit. Med syfte att ge en ökad förståelse för dagens eklandskap i samband med naturvårdens arbete har ekens historiska utbredning och kvalitet kartlagts i Lösen socken i östra Blekinge. Undersökningen grundar sig på ekinventeringsprotokoll från år 1819 och 1832, men även historiskt kartmaterial. Genom att gå ner på by- och hemmansnivå har platser med hög ektäthet under 1800-talet lokaliserats i landskapet. En studie på denna detaljnivå har aldrig tidigare utförts för Blekinge län. Resultatet visar att ektätheten för tvåhundra år sedan var högst i Lösen sockens södra och mellersta delar, närmast kusten. Dagens skyddade ekmiljöer återfinns främst i socknens sydvästra delar, vilket visar på en kontinuitet. De mellersta och sydöstra delarna omfattas däremot inte av några områdesskydd idag. En stor del av ekarna i socknen benämns i protokollen som skadade samt som ”knut- och risekar”. Böndernas åverkan på träden och socknens naturgivna förhållanden ses som möjliga faktorer till detta. Dessa ekar dög inte till skeppsvirke, men kunde å andra sidan ha utgjort viktiga livsmiljöer för vedlevande arter.

Research on hillslope surface processes and hillslope stratigraphy has been neglected in southern Africa. The amount of published literature on hillslope stratigraphy in southern Africa is very limited. Hillslope sediments provide a record of past environmental conditions and may be especially useful in calculating the recurrence interval of extreme environmental conditions such as earthquakes and intense rainfall events. The characteristics of hillslope sediments provide information as to their origin, transport and mechanisms of deposition. No published work could be found that had been undertaken on hillslope surface processes or stratigraphy in the eastern Cape coastal region. This study attempted to fill this gap in the geomorphic literature for southern Africa. The surface processes acting on hillslopes at Burchleigh and Spring Grove in the Alexandria district of the eastern Cape were examined in terms of slope morphology, surface sediment characteristics and the internal geometry of the hillslope sedimentary deposits. The late Quaternary hillslope sedimentary deposits at the two study sites are composed of fine grained colluvial sediments intercalated with highly lenticular diamicts. The fine grained colluvial sediments were emplaced by overland flow processes while the diamicts were deposited by debris flows. The sedimentary sequences at both study sites have a basal conglomerate interpreted as a channel lag deposit. Most slope failures preceding debris flow events were probably triggered by intense or extended periods of rainfall associated with cold fronts or cut-of flows. Seismic events may also have triggered slope failure, with or without the hillslope sediments being saturated. The results of this study indicate that a continuum exists between the slopewash dominated processes of the presently summer rainfall regions of Natal to the present winter rainfall regions of the western Cape where mass movement processes are significant. Hillslope deposits, therefore, provide a record of environmental conditions which may greatly facilitate proper management of the landscape.

With an increasing number of large area data sets, many study areas exhibit spatial non-stationarity or spatial variation in mean and variance of observed phenomena. This poses issues for a number of spatial analysis methods which assume data are stationary. The Getis and Ord’s Gi* statistic is a popular measure that, like many others, is impacted by non stationarity. The Gi* is used for locating hot and cold spots in marked data through the detection of spatial autocorrelation in values that are extreme relative to the global mean value, or the mean entire study area. This thesis describes modifications of the Getis and Ord’s Gi* local measure of spatial association, in part to account for regional differences (spatial non-stationarity) in a dataset. Instead of using data from the entire study area to calculate the mean parameter, as is done for the standard Gi*, I capture points for calculation of the mean using a circular distance band centred on the pivot location, which I call the local region (similar to the Ord and Getis Oi statistic). This approach can be applied to a single instance of a local region or to multiple spatial scales of the local region. I explore both in this paper using simulated datasets and a case study on mountain pine beetle infestation data. I find that the local region, when of a similar size to a true region (homogeneous section of the study area where the mean is approximately the same across locations), obtains similar results to the standard Gi* calculated separately on distinct regions (simulated to be distinct), but has the advantage of not needing explicit delineation of regional boundaries or partitioning into separate subareas. The results of a probability score for a multi-scale approach include high and low scores that are more evenly distributed across the study area and that are thus able to pick out more subtle variations within different regions. Through the case study I demonstrate how the multi-scale approach may be applied to a real dataset.

Considering the recent losses observed in Arctic sea-ice and the anticipated future warming due to anthropogenic greenhouse gas emissions, sea-ice retreat in the Canadian Arctic Archipelago (CAA) is expected. As most global climate models do not resolve the CAA region, a fine-resolution regional model is developed to provide a sense of possible changes in the CAA sea-ice. This ice-ocean coupled model is forced with atmospheric data for two time-periods. Results from a historical run (1950-2004)are used to validate the model. The model does well in representing observed sea-ice spatial and seasonal variability, but tends to underestimate summertime ice cover. In the future run (2041-2060), wintertime ice concentrations change little, but the summertime ice concentrations decrease by 45%. The ice thickness also decreases, by 17% in the winter, and by 36% in summer. Based on this study, a completely ice-free CAA is unlikely by the year 2050, but the region could support some commercial shipping.

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Vancouver Island offers varied relief from coastal plains to high mountains in the central portion of the Island. The coastline is broken, especially in the Western Coast, illustrating beautifully the work of glaciers, and thereby providing Vancouver Island with excellent harbours. These inlets also help in the exploitation of the timber resources of the Island. From these mountains spring up rivers that provide electric power for domestic and industrial uses. The southeastern coastal plain, which is highly developed, varies in width from a mile to a few miles. The glacial soils, with favourable topography, are put to intensive use around the area of urban concentrations, to supply the local markets. Climates differ from one part of the region to another. The Western Coast has an annual rainfall over one hundred inches as compared to about forty inches in the southeast. The northern part of the Island is cloudy, but the south is known for sunshine. Topography, helped by climate, makes Vancouver Island a major forest region and the forest accounts for the prosperity of the region. Forestry is the main primary occupation on Vancouver Island. Most of the secondary and tertiary industries of the Island depend upon forests for their raw material. Forest products contribute a major portion of the Island's export. Pulp and paper production is expanding rapidly. It is the physical and economic factors that make Vancouver Island one of the leading producers of forest products in Canada. Agricultural activity is limited to the southeastern part. Specialized crops are the most favoured ones because they bring high revenues. Dairying and poultry are well developed. Dairy accounts for fifty percent of the total value of the farm products. Because of sub-division and the encroachment by the urban expansion on the farm land, farms are becoming smaller and the number of part time farms is increasing. Fishing is important in some local areas, but processing of fish products is declining. The main fishing regions lie to the northeast and the other is to south and southeast of the Island. In terms of catch, herring leads in quantity, but Salmon is the most valuable. Mining contributes about nine million dollars annually. Structural materials are the most valuable types of production. Coal mining, which was once prominent, is declining, but the Comox fields might change the picture again. Iron and copper are also mined. Because of the favourable climate and opportunities for work, the population of Vancouver Island is increasing steadily. The southeastern part is densely populated. Population consists of many national groups but those of British origin are most numerous. / Arts, Faculty of / Geography, Department of / Graduate

Organic matter (OM) in arctic permafrost ground contains about twice as much carbon (C) as is currently present in the atmosphere. Climate change is particularly strong in the Arctic, and could cause a considerable part of the OM in permafrost to thaw out, decompose, and be released as greenhouse gases; further enhancing global warming. The exact size of the northern circumpolar C pool remains unclear, and processes that control decomposition and mineralization rates are even more uncertain. Superimposed on the long-term release of C through microbial decomposition of OM in the gradually deepening active layer, is the rapid release of currently sequestered OM through geomorphological processes. This thesis considers the quantity, quality, and availability of permafrost C, and explores interactions and common controls. To better understand the potential effects of thawing permafrost, it is vital to: i) obtain more accurate size and distribution estimates of permafrost C stocks, and develop methods to accurately and efficiently implement these in models, ii) identify OM characteristics that control decomposition, specifically for permafrost material, and iii) determine and quantify key geomorphological processes that cause large amounts of OM to become available for rapid decomposition. Detailed C quantifications are valuable to increase our fundamental understanding of permafrost soil processes and C sequestration, but including high levels of heterogeneity in models is challenging. Simple upscaling tools based on e.g. elevation parameters (Paper I) can help to bridge the gap between detailed field studies and global C models. Permafrost OM quality is controlled by different factors than those commonly observed in temperate soils (without permafrost). We observed an unexpected (significant) correlation in upper permafrost samples, where material that is generally considered more recalcitrant showed the highest CO2 production rates per g C, indicating high lability (Paper II). In ancient Pleistocene permafrost, labile samples related significantly to OM that was enriched in decomposed microbial remains, whereas less-decomposed plant material was more stable (Paper III). Investigation of multiple incubation datasets revealed that the unusual relationship between %C and CO2 production occurred in contrasting field sites throughout the Arctic, indicating important permafrost-specific controls over OM quality (Paper IV). We discuss several possible explanations for the observed high lability of permafrost OM, such as a pool of labile dissolved organic C in the upper permafrost, or increased lability caused by past decomposition. In order to conclusively identify causal relationships, and to answer the question whether or not the same mechanisms control OM quality in different environments, further investigation of permafrost-specific OM quality is required. Geomorphology plays a key role in C reworking and OM decomposition. Vast amounts of OM can be released abruptly (e.g. in thaw slumps and thermokarst lakes, Paper II), resulting in C turnover that will likely outweigh decomposition through gradual active layer deepening. Climate change could enhance this rapid release of C, and changes in surface hydrology and increased fire activity are expected to become the largest contributors to C loss from permafrost regions. Together with C quantity and quality, availability through gradual and abrupt processes must be parameterized and included in models in order to accurately assess the potential permafrost C climate feedback. / <p>At the time of the doctoral defense, the following papers were unpublished and had a status as follows: Paper 1: Manuscript. Paper 3: Manuscript. Paper 4: Manuscript.</p>

Ängens hade stor betydelse för jordbruket fram till 1800–1900-tal och syfte var att producera vinterfoder till djuren. När skiftesreformerna etablerades möjliggjordes att ägostycken slogs samman till större, mer lättbrukliga åkrar vilket bidrog till att mer mark kunde läggas under plog. Vallodlingen introducerades vilket resulterade i ängens minskade status. Syftet med studien är att redogöra för ängsarealens förändring under perioden 1700–1900 i Huaröds och Södra Rörums socknar utifrån en källkritisk granskning av jordbruksstatistiken och historiskt kartmaterial. Utifrån jordbruksstatistiken och kartmaterialet har andelen äng satts i förhållande till inägomark. För både Södra Rörums socken och Huaröds socken visar jordbruksstatistiken återkommande anmärkningsvärda felrapportering vilket bidrar till att materialet inte lämpar sig för studier.   Kartmaterialet består av både kartmaterial på socken och bynivå som har tillkommit under en lång tidsperiod med skiftande syften och varierande förutsättningar. Laga skifteskarta avmättes av en lantmätare och syftet vara att fördela jorden rättvist. Materialet bedöms som tillförlitligt på grund av lantmätarens detaljerade arealuppmätning. Häradsekonomiska kartan bör eventuellt ifrågasättas mer. Ängens hade i stort sett förlorat sin betydelse och därför fanns inget intresse av att upprätthålla en lika noggrann klassificering som i skifteskartorna. Det vi med denna studie kan konstatera är att ängen minskat från 1800-talet fram till 1900-talet, dock kan vi inte under några omständigheter fästa det i varken tid eller takt med uppgifter från hushållssälskapens jordbruksstatistik.

The amount of carbon dioxide, CO2, in the atmosphere is continuously rising due to human emissions caused by combustion of fossil fuels and changing of land use. In a very short time several measures need to be taken in order to reduce the amount of CO2 in the atmosphere and thereby slowing down climate change as much as possible. The land use has changed considerably the last century with the biggest change in recent decades. This has led to that arable land all over the world has been depleted of nutrients with up to 75% in some regions. With a growing population worldwide and increased climate changes that threatens the arable land, something needs to be done to make sure we use the arable land in the most effective way. Biochar is one of the solutions to both these problems. By producing char out of biomass in high temperatures with minimized access to oxygen in a pyrolysis process you get biochar. This process releases less CO2 than a normal combustion process and the biochar becomes a carbon sink when it is put in the soil.  With its porous structure biochar has a great ability to keep water and nutrients in the soil for a very long time and it also makes the soil porous with a great amount of oxygen, which the roots prefer. The purpose of this essay is to find out what the use of biochar looks like in Sweden and how the use could increase within the agriculture, the municipalities and within horticulture. With qualitative interviews and a quantitaive and qualitative survey this essay has come to the conclusion that four things are needed to increase the use of biochar in Sweden. First of all, more scientific research is needed on biochar and how this can be used in the best way since it is a new product and there are still much to learn. Secondly, an increased production in Sweden is needed since today´s demand is bigger than the supply. Thirdly, it is needed to be able to certify ones carbon sink in order to be able to sell carbon-sink-ceritficates to companies who would like to reduce their climate impact.  Finally, more information on biochar is needed, in all stages. Producers need information to be able to start producing biochar and consumers need information in order to increase the demand and the interest of biochar. / Koldioxidhalten i atmosfären ökar ständigt till följd av människans utsläpp i samband med förbränning av främst fossila bränslen och förändrat markanvändande. På mycket kort tid behöver flera åtgärder vidtas för att minska koldioxidhalten i atmosfären och därmed bromsa klimatförändringarna i största möjliga mån. Markanvändningen har förändrats kraftigt det senaste århundradet med den största förändringen de senaste decennierna, vilket har lett till att åkermark över världen har utarmats näringsmässigt med upp till 75% på vissa platser. Med en växande befolkning i världen och ökade klimatförändringar som hotar jordbruksmarken behöver något göras för att effektivisera den jordbruksmark som finns. Biokol är en av lösningarna på båda de här problemen. Genom att producera kol av biomassa under hög värme utan syretillgång i en s.k. pyrolysprocess skapar man biokol. Denna produktionsprocess avger mindre koldioxid än en vanlig förbränning hade gjort, samtidigt som biokolen binder kol i marken när man lägger det i jorden och därmed bildar en kolsänka. Med sin porösa struktur har biokolet stor förmåga att hålla näring och vatten kvar i jorden under lång tid och bidrar även till en porös markstruktur med mycket syre där rötter trivs.  Biokol bidrar därmed både till att minska koldioxidhalten i atmosfären och till att skördarna på våra åkrar ökar och att våra stadsplanterade träd trivs bättre.  Uppsatsens syfte är att ta reda på hur biokolsanvändningen ser ut i Sverige idag och att även komma fram till vad som skulle krävas för att öka biokolsanvändningen inom det svenska lantbruket, kommunerna och trädgårdsnäringen. Genom kvalitativa intervjuer och en kvalitativ och kvantitativ enkät har den här uppsatsen kommit fram till att det som krävs för att öka användningen av biokol i Sverige är främst fyra saker. Först och främst att mer forskning på biokol och dess användningsområden görs eftersom det är en ny produkt där mer kunskap behövs för att användningen av biokol ska göras på bästa sätt.  Det behövs även en ökad produktion av biokol i Sverige eftersom efterfrågan idag är större än utbudet. Vidare krävs att det blir enkelt att få sin kolsänka certifierad så att den kan säljas på en marknad där företag som vill klimatkompensera kan köpa ”kolsänkecertifikat” samtidigt som certifikatet blir ett ekonomiskt incitament till att producera biokol. Slutligen krävs mer information om biokol i alla led. Producenter behöver få mer information för att vilja starta produktion av biokol och konsumenter behöver information så att intresset och marknaden för biokol ökar.