Pagrindiniu nuostolių atlyginimo tikslu pripažįstamas siekis grąžinti asmenį į tą padėtį, kurioje jis būtų buvęs, jei žala nebūtų buvusi padaryta. Valstybė yra konstituciškai įpareigota teisinėmis, materialinėmis, organizacinėmis priemonėmis užtikrinti žmogaus teisių ir laisvių gynimą nuo neteisėto kėsinimosi ar ribojimo, nustatyti pakankamas žmogaus teisių ir laisvių apsaugos ir gynimo priemones. Teismas, nustatydamas neturtinės žalos dydį, privalo atsižvelgti į jos pasekmes, šią žalą padariusio asmens kaltę, jo turtinę padėtį, padarytos turtinės žalos dydį bei kitas turinčias reikšmės bylai aplinkybes, taip pat į sąžiningumo, teisingumo ir protingumo kriterijus. Be to, teismai, nustatin��dami neturtinės žalos dydį, privalo vadovautis ne tik išvardytais kriterijais, bet atsižvelgti ir į specifinius dėl nusikalstamos veikos atsiradusius turtinius ir neturtinius padarinius, galimus pasikeitimus įvairiose nukentėjusiojo asmens gyvenimo srityse ir kitas aplinkybes, turinčias tiesioginę įtaką fizinių ir dvasinių išgyvenimų mastui ir stiprumui. / Non-pecuniary damages are compensated in all ways when the harm is done by criminal offense for person’s health or for killing somebody. The legislator does not give the finite list of ways when non-pecuniary damages could be awarded. The right of decision is given to the court and it has to evaluate the circumstances in each particular case. Moreover, the court, while assessing the size of non-pecuniary damages, has to consider the after-effect of the harm done, the fault of the person who did this harm and his interest and other circumstances that are important to the case. On the other hand, if non-pecuniary damages are not rewarded for the person voluntarily, he (she) has a right to give a civil claim in criminal case. Honesty, justice and reasonableness are the most important criterions in evaluation for non-pecuniary damages.

Įrodymų leistinumas yra vienas aktualiausių įrodymų savybių klausimų, kuris šiuolaikiniame teis÷s moksle n÷ra sistemiškai ir pakankamai atskleistas. Nebuvimas tikslios ir vienareikšm÷s įrodymų leistinumo definicijos – daro šį klausimą dar aktualesniu. Tad šis magistro baigiamasis darbas yra skirtas įrodymų leistinumo problemos nagrin÷jimui, naujai apibr÷žiant įrodymų leistinumo turinį, pateikiant jo sąvoką ir reikšmę civilinio proceso mokslui. Apibr÷žiant įrodymų leistinumą bus aptarta bendroji įrodymų leistinumo taisykl÷, į kurią bus pažvelgta keliais aspektais. Kadangi kiekviena įrodin÷jimo priemon÷ turi savo specifiką, ypatingas d÷mesys bus skiriamas atskirų įrodin÷jimo priemonių leistinumo ypatumams. Atkreiptinas d÷meys bus į problematiškus leistinumo klausimus, tame tarpe ir į klausimus, susijusius su leistinų elektroninių duomenų naudojimu civiliniame procese. Tad šio magistro baigiamojo darbo tiklsas yra apibendrintai pateikti teorinius ir praktinius įrodymų leistinumo civiliniame procese aspektus. / The reliability of evidences is one of the most actual aspects of evidences which are not enough analyzed in science of law. The fact that there is no clear meaning of reliability of evidences makes the problem even more actual. The purpose is to analyze the problem of the reliability of evidences and to clarify a definition and conception of reliability of evidences. Analyzing and defining the aspects of reliability of evidences the author pays attention to the common rule of reliability of evidences in few ways. The author also pays attention to the peculiarity of the particular kinds of evidences which every have it’s own specifics. Analyzing some aspects of the reliability author pays attention to actual problems, for example, the legal use of electronic data as evidences in civil procedure. The purpose of this scientific work is to show and analyze the conception, meaning and actual problems of the reliability of evidences as well as to suggest possible ways for resolving actual problems and gaps in both theoretical and practical levels.

The Priest-Klein model predicts that a decline in the plaintiff win rate might be explained by a change in stake asymmetry that favors the plaintiff; that is, the stakes for defendants increase. This lowers the plaintiff win rate because defendants increasingly look to settle cases they are less likely to win, leading them to only go to trial with cases they have a comparably higher probability of winning. We theorize a shift like this might have occurred between 1985 and 1995, as Lahav and Siegelman (2017) recently discovered that the plaintiff win rate fell from almost 70% in 1985 to just over 30% in 1995. Although they found that changing judicial caseloads and other factors represented a notable portion of the decline, they were unable to identify what drove the remaining 40%. We hypothesize that this unexplained decline was caused by increasing defendant stakes and examine two potential drivers of increasing stake asymmetry: changing judicial ideology and a rise in the number of Multi-District Litigation (MDL) cases, a type of case with higher defendant stakes. We find evidence consistent with the Priest-Klein model for MDL cases as these cases experienced lower adjudication rates, lower plaintiff win rates, and higher settlement rates. Additionally, we found that judicial ideology was substantially more important for MDL cases, suggesting that judges might make use of their greater influence in these cases to guide outcomes. Yet, while both MDL case status and judicial ideology were statistically significant predictors of plaintiff win rates, we found that neither explains a substantial portion of the decline. Thus, a large proportion of the decline found by Lahav and Siegelman remains a mystery.

A presente dissertação tem por objetivo o estudo da aplicação do princípio da congruência no Processo Individual do Trabalho. Tal princípio caracteriza-se pelo caráter restritivo da atuação judicial, vinculando a prolação de sentença aos limites da lide. A problemática centra-se no entendimento do conceito de lide, ora entendido simplesmente como pedido, ora como a matéria fática e jurídica levada aos autos, permitindo-se ao magistrado conhecer de pedidos não formulados expressamente, desde que os fatos a eles pertinentes tenham sido discutidos nos autos. A partir da Teoria Instrumentalista do Processo, que admite este modo de resolução de conflitos como um meio para a efetividade do Direito Material, buscou-se identificar a possibilidade de flexibilização do princípio da congruência no Processo Individual do Trabalho, tendo em vista que o estudo deste princípio revelou que a doutrina e a jurisprudência civil e trabalhista já permitem sua relativização ou mitigação em determinados casos, em especial quando se trata da aplicação de norma de ordem pública, uma das características do Direito Material do Trabalho. Ademais, considerando as questões linguísticas implicadas na formulação da pretensão da parte e da sentença, foi feita pesquisa jurisprudencial no sítio eletrônico do Tribunal Superior do Trabalho, de modo a identificar as relações hermenêuticas estabelecidas entre o pedido e a decisão final neste tribunal. Para tanto, foram selecionadas 149 decisões em que se discute a existência ou não de julgamento além dos limites da lide, destacando-se os casos em que o tribunal considerou desnecessária a formulação de pedido expresso para a concessão de direito trabalhista / The purpose of this dissertation is to study the use of the Principle of Ne Ultra et Extra Petita in individual labor process. This principle is defined by the restrictive aspect of the acts of the judge, binding the sentence to the matters under dispute. The core discussion lies on the identification of such matters, which can be seen as simply the pleadings expressed by the parties or as all the matters in connection with the facts merely mentioned by them. The latter position would allow the judicial authority to pronounce a sentence addressing additional matters that were not expressly pleaded by the parties. Based on the idea that the due process of law is an instrument to achieve effectiveness of legal commands, on the already accepted exception of this principle when it comes to public order rules, and also on the assumption that labor law is of public order, this dissertation analyzed the possibility of disregarding the Principle of Ne Ultra et Extra Petita in individual labor process in order to enhance the legal award. In addition to the theoretical analysis, a wide research on the website of the superior labor court (Tribunal Superior do Trabalho) was carried out in order to verify the hermeneutical relations between the pleadings and the dispositions of the judicial decision. Bearing such an objective in mind, 149 decisions on the alleged violation of the Principle of Ne Ultra et Extra Petita were selected and analyzed, focusing on those awards in which the court considered irrelevant the existence of an express pleading in order to grant or deny a specific labor right.

A presente dissertação tem por objetivo o estudo da aplicação do princípio da congruência no Processo Individual do Trabalho. Tal princípio caracteriza-se pelo caráter restritivo da atuação judicial, vinculando a prolação de sentença aos limites da lide. A problemática centra-se no entendimento do conceito de lide, ora entendido simplesmente como pedido, ora como a matéria fática e jurídica levada aos autos, permitindo-se ao magistrado conhecer de pedidos não formulados expressamente, desde que os fatos a eles pertinentes tenham sido discutidos nos autos. A partir da Teoria Instrumentalista do Processo, que admite este modo de resolução de conflitos como um meio para a efetividade do Direito Material, buscou-se identificar a possibilidade de flexibilização do princípio da congruência no Processo Individual do Trabalho, tendo em vista que o estudo deste princípio revelou que a doutrina e a jurisprudência civil e trabalhista já permitem sua relativização ou mitigação em determinados casos, em especial quando se trata da aplicação de norma de ordem pública, uma das características do Direito Material do Trabalho. Ademais, considerando as questões linguísticas implicadas na formulação da pretensão da parte e da sentença, foi feita pesquisa jurisprudencial no sítio eletrônico do Tribunal Superior do Trabalho, de modo a identificar as relações hermenêuticas estabelecidas entre o pedido e a decisão final neste tribunal. Para tanto, foram selecionadas 149 decisões em que se discute a existência ou não de julgamento além dos limites da lide, destacando-se os casos em que o tribunal considerou desnecessária a formulação de pedido expresso para a concessão de direito trabalhista / The purpose of this dissertation is to study the use of the Principle of Ne Ultra et Extra Petita in individual labor process. This principle is defined by the restrictive aspect of the acts of the judge, binding the sentence to the matters under dispute. The core discussion lies on the identification of such matters, which can be seen as simply the pleadings expressed by the parties or as all the matters in connection with the facts merely mentioned by them. The latter position would allow the judicial authority to pronounce a sentence addressing additional matters that were not expressly pleaded by the parties. Based on the idea that the due process of law is an instrument to achieve effectiveness of legal commands, on the already accepted exception of this principle when it comes to public order rules, and also on the assumption that labor law is of public order, this dissertation analyzed the possibility of disregarding the Principle of Ne Ultra et Extra Petita in individual labor process in order to enhance the legal award. In addition to the theoretical analysis, a wide research on the website of the superior labor court (Tribunal Superior do Trabalho) was carried out in order to verify the hermeneutical relations between the pleadings and the dispositions of the judicial decision. Bearing such an objective in mind, 149 decisions on the alleged violation of the Principle of Ne Ultra et Extra Petita were selected and analyzed, focusing on those awards in which the court considered irrelevant the existence of an express pleading in order to grant or deny a specific labor right.

Cette thèse a pour objet l'obligation de sécurité en matière la responsabilité contractuelle à la lumière du droit français et du droit libyen. La recherche tend à répondre aux questions suivantes : Qu'entend-on par sécurité des produits médicaux ? Sur quel fondement juridique peut-on justifier cette obligation ? Quelles sont les difficultés d'application de cette obligation pour traiter les problèmes de produits de santé ? C'est quoi le produits de santé ? Et Le droit de la responsabilité civile libyen est-il parfaitement adapté à la protection de la victime des produits de santé comme dans le droit de la responsabilité français ? Ce questionnement a conduit l'auteur à développer une analyse approfondie de l'obligation de sécurité en manière de la responsabilité contractuelle et le droit de la santé français et libyen. Dans la première partie de la thèse, on constate que la notion d'obligation de sécurité, y compris en matière de la responsabilité contractuelle, a connu une évolution majeure par rapport à l'époque précédant. En fait, l'apparition de la notion d'obligation de sécurité est ancienne puisqu'elle a été créée en France le 21 novembre 1911 à l'occasion du contrat de transport. Elle peut être définie comme « l'obligation de veiller à la sécurité d'une personne ou d'un bien, qui peut être une obligation de résultat ou de moyen ». Certains codes du monde proche-oriental ont adopté la résolution que la Cour de cassation française a prise en 1911 dans le domaine du transport de personnes, comme l'Egypte et le Liban. En 1956, la Cour d'Appel à Alexandrie a conformé l'obligation de sécurité dans le domaine du transport de personnes / This thesis focuses on the safety obligation regarding contractual liability in the light of French law and Libyan law. Research tends to answer the following questions: What is safety of medical products? On what legal basis can we justify that obligation? What are the difficulties in applying this requirement to address issues of health products? What is the health products? The law and civil liability Libya is it perfectly suited to the protection of the victim of health products as in the French liability law? This questioning has led the author to develop a thorough analysis of the safety obligation by way of contractual liability and health law French and Libyan. In the first part of the thesis, we see that the notion of bond security, including with respect to contractual liability, has experienced a major change from the time before. In fact, the emergence of the concept of safety obligation is old since it was founded in France 21 November 1911 at the contract of carriage. It can be defined as "the obligation to ensure the safety of any person or property which may be an obligation of result or means." Some codes of Near Eastern world have adopted the resolution that the French Supreme Court has taken in 1911 in the transportation of persons, such as Egypt and Lebanon. In 1956, the Appeal Court in Alexandria has complied with the requirement of safety in the transportation of persons. Similarly, in Lebanon in the Code of Obligations and Contracts provides in Article 688 that the contract of carriage of persons is the responsibility of the carrier's obligation to lead the traveler, unharmed, to the destination

Liability insurance concerns an insured’s insurance of its legal liability towards a third party for the latter’s loss. This specialised type of insurance is rather neglected in South African insurance law. There is a lack of understanding of the intricacies of liability insurance and its unique challenges. This flows primarily from its complex nature as third-party insurance, which involves legal obligations between multiple parties, and a lack of statutory regulation of the distinctive contractual aspects of liability insurance. Furthermore, limited authority exists on contentious legal aspects as a result of the relatively small number of judicial decisions in this field of law. It is also evident that liability insurance constantly evolves as new grounds of liability emerge and new insurance products develop in response to the changing demands of society. The rise of consumerism and the increase in third-party claims amplify the economic significance of the law of liability insurance in South Africa. A substantial knowledge gap remains in our jurisprudence, irrespective of the recent introduction of new statutory instruments aimed at regulating insurance practice in general. These reforms have not as yet been applied critically to liability insurance, and no specialised legislation in South Africa regulates aspects of this branch of insurance as is the case with microinsurance. The focus in this thesis is on two main issues: the insurer’s duty effectively to indemnify the insured, and the insurer’s defence and settlement of third-party claims brought against the insured. As a subsidiary theme, this thesis analyses legal uncertainties that may persist during pre-contractual negotiations, the liability insurance contract lifecycle, and even after the expiry of the contract. Legal challenges can be addressed by novel and creative application of the national law. Potential solutions can be gleaned from the other progressive jurisdictions reviewed – English and Belgian law. It is evident that this research may prompt Parliament to develop specific rules and regulations for liability insurance contract law. This thesis includes a check list of some of the most important disclosure duties for procuring liability insurance cover, its operation, and claims processes. / Mercantile Law / LL.D.

The EU jurisdictional scheme, known as the “Brussels Regime”, confers competence to national courts to adjudicate over international matters. The main rule in Article 4(1) of the Brussels Ibis Regulation sets out that the defendant should generally be sued in the courts of the Member State where he is domiciled. For certain subject matters, the scheme allows the action to be brought elsewhere. The raison d’être is to provide an adequate counterbalance to the one-sided rule of Article 4(1). Articles 7(1) and (2) enable the claimant to launch the suit, “in matters relating to a contract”, at the court of the Member State where the contractual obligation was to be fulfilled, and, in “matters relating to tort”, in the courts for the place where the harmful event occurred. Whether to invoke Article 7 is entirely the claimant’s choice, but the final decision on its interpretation is vested in the Court. Thereby, the manner in which the Court views the provisions will effectively decide the extent of the claimant’s choice to invoke so-called special jurisdiction. It also means that greater emphasis on special jurisdiction will reduce the importance of the main rule in Article 4. Conversely, if the Court were to interpret Article 7 narrowly, its intended effect within the system would be denied. In both cases, the balance between Articles 4 and 7 has been upset. In the former case, the claimant is favoured because of the increased possibilities to choose the forum for the dispute, while in the latter case, the defendant is favoured because he retains the advantage of litigating in his home turf. The starting point for this essay is this very idea of a purported balance between litigants’ interests in EU cross-border litigation. The thesis analyses whether the Court’s case-law on general vis-à-vis special jurisdiction has transitioned from being generally defendant-friendly to claimant-friendly. It is argued that already from the first judgments rendered on the original Brussels Convention in 1976, increasingly more disputes have been launched at special fora, which has amounted to a claimant-friendly scheme. It is also argued that this development has been at the expense of the defendant. Greater choice for the claimant means in turn that the defendant’s ability to foresee before what courts he may be sued has been largely impaired. The thesis highlights how this imbalance is the result of inherent challenges in the Brussels Regime, particularly in relation to how the relevant connecting factors are designated. It is proposed that the unwanted effects of the Court’s practice as well as the shortcomings of the scheme itself are to be considered in the Commission’s evaluationof the Brussels Ibis Regulation, which is presently in the works.

Le droit d’agir devant la Cour européenne des droits de l’Homme est assurément unique dansl’ordre juridique international. Erigé en « pierre angulaire » du système européen de sauvegarde,bénéficie-t-il pour autant d’une protection à la hauteur de cette qualification? L’engorgementmanifeste de la Cour de Strasbourg place cette interrogation dans une actualité perpétuelle.L’étude de ce droit processuel supranational illustre l’existence simultanée de deux courantsprétoriens aux effets diamétralement opposés sur l’exercice du droit d’agir : l’un souple, provictima, qui ouvre largement le prétoire de la Cour et l’autre restreignant a contrario son accès. Sil’approche souple satisfait naturellement l’intérêt individuel des requérants, elle permet égalementà la Cour de bâtir un ordre public européen de protection des droits de l’Homme. Parallèlement,l’interprétation stricte des conditions d’accès repose sur la responsabilisation des acteurs dumécanisme européen et sous-tend un filtrage rigoureux des affaires individuelles. Le droit d’agirreprésente, par conséquent, une composante d’un système de protection de nature« constitutionnelle » évoluant aux rythmes des liens tissés entre les deux courants prétoriensévoqués. C’est en effet par un mouvement pendulaire entre l’ouverture et la fermeture du prétoirede la Cour de Strasbourg que la garantie durable du droit d’agir peut être assurée. / The right of action in front of the European Court of Human Rights is certainly unparalleled in theinternational legal order. In the light of the constant congestion at the Strasbourg Court, one canonly ask if this right is genuinely guaranteed as the corner stone that is intended to be in theEuropean system of protection. The analysis of this supranational procedural right reflects theexistence of two distinct case law dynamics that influence the right of action: the pro victimaeffect, widening the access to the Court, and the opposite restraining effect. The first effect, moreflexible, not only favors the individual interest of the plaintiff, but also allows the Court todevelop the European public order of human rights protection. In parallel, the restraining effect onthe grounds of access to the Court entails a rigorous filtering of the individual cases, in order toachieve an increased accountability on human rights protection both of States and individuals.Therefore, the right of action represents the component of what can be nowadays qualified of a« constitutional » system of Human rights protection. Moreover, the alternate dynamics, closingand opening access to the Court, describe a pendula movement that is essential for a sustainableright of action.