A mancha preta dos citros é uma doença que limita a exportação de laranja brasileira para os países da Europa. Exceto para Citrus aurantium e seus híbridos, todas as outras variedades são susceptíveis ao patógeno. Com isso existe um grande interesse para que esta doença não ocorra, uma vez que é considerada uma doença quarentenária A1. Problemas associados à aquisição de resistência e a percepção do público em geral sobre o impacto potencial das práticas tradicionais de controle sobre a saúde e meio ambiente levaram a uma crescente demanda por produtos livres de resíduos químicos. Em vista disso, este trabalho verificou o efeito dos extratos aquosos do albedo de C. sinensis, L. edodes, A. blazei e da suspensão de S. cerevisiae no controle da mancha preta dos citros quando associados a refrigeração. Os frutos de C. sinensis var. Valência, após serem tratados pelos extratos, permaneceram durante 21 dias a 3 ºC e posteriormente 4 dias a 25 ºC, foram realizadas cinco avaliações ao longo do experimento. Neste trabalho, também verificou-se a eficiência dos compostos orgânicos voláteis produzidos por S. cerevisiae no controle da mancha preta dos citros quando aplicados em pós-colheita. A linhagem CR-1 da levedura S. cerevisiae foi colocada para crescer em placas de poliestireno contendo meio de batata-dextroseágar e colocada em recipientes de vidro de 3 L fechados, junto com frutos de C. sinensis var. Valência apresentando sintomas de mancha preta dos citros. E por fim, verificou-se a eficiência de diferentes compostos orgânicos identificados a partir da S. cerevisiae, obtidos a partir de produtos disponíveis comercialmente, que foram utilizados para verificar o crescimento micelial a germinação e a formação de apressório por G. citricarpa, e o controle da mancha preta dos citros em pós-colheita. Como resultado, os extratos aquosos do albedo de C. sinensis, L. edodes e A. blazei apresentaram potencial como agentes de controle sobre a mancha preta dos citros em frutos de laranja (C. sinensis var. Valência) associados a refrigeração, pois apresentaram inibição no aparecimento de novas lesões. Os compostos voláteis produzidos por S. cerevisiae inibiram a expressão de sintomas em frutos de C. sinensis var. Valência, quando tratados em pós-colheita, sendo que os compostos orgânicos voláteis, 2-metil-1-butanol e 3-metil-1-butanol apresentaram inibição sobre Guignardia citricarpa in vitro e atuaram como agentes de controle, inibindo o aparecimento de novas lesões em frutos de laranja Valência, apresentando sintomas de mancha preta, quando aplicados em pós-colheita. / The citrus black spot is a disease that restricts the export of Brazilian oranges to the countries in Europe. Except for Citrus aurantium and its hybrids, all other varieties are susceptible to the pathogen. Thus, there is great interest that this disease does not occur, since it is considered a quarantine A1 disease. Problems associated with the acquisition of fungal resistance and the perception of the general public about the potential impact of traditional control measures over the health and the environment led to a growing demand for products free of chemical residues. Thus, this study was carried out to investigate the effect of aqueous extracts of the albedo of C. sinensis, L. edodes, A. blazei and the suspension of S. cerevisiae cells in the control of citrus black spot when associated with cooling. The fruits of C. sinensis var. Valencia, after being treated with the extracts, were stored for 21 days at 3 º C and then 4 days at 25 ° C (there were five evaluations during the experiment). This work also verified the efficiency of volatile organic compounds produced by S. cerevisiae in the control of citrus black spot when applied in post-harvest. The CR-1 strain of yeast S. cerevisiae was put to grow inside polystyrene plates containing potato-dextrose-agar medium. The plates were placed in closed glass containers of 3 L, along with fruits of C. sinensis var. Valencia showing symptoms of citrus black spot. Finally, it was verified the effect of different organic compounds, identified from the S. cerevisiae and obtained from commercially available products, on in vitro mycelial growth, germination and appressorium formation by G. citricarpa and on the in vivo control of citrus black spot under post-harvest conditions. The results showed that the aqueous extracts of the albedo of C. sinensis, L. edodes and A. blazei exhibit potential to control the black spot in orange (C. sinensis var. Valencia) associated with cooling, since they inhibited the appearance of new lesions. The volatile compounds produced by S. cerevisiae inhibited the expression of symptoms in fruits of C. sinensis var. Valencia, when treated in postharvest. On the other hand, the microbial volatile organic compounds, 2-methyl-1- butanol and 3-methyl-1-butanol inhibited the growth of Guignardia citricarpa in vitro and acted as control agents by inhibiting the appearance of new lesions of black spot in fruits of Valencia orange when applied in post-harvest.

Stem rot of peanut (Arachis hypogaea L.), caused by a soilborne fungus Athelia rolfsii (Curzi) C. C. Tu and Kimbr. (anamorph: Sclerotium rolfsii Sacc.), is one of the most important diseases in peanut production worldwide. Though new varieties with increased partial resistance to this disease have been developed, there is still a need to utilize fungicides for disease control during the growing season. Fungicides with activity against A. rolfsii are available, and several new products have been recently registered for control of stem rot in peanut. However, fungicides are most effective when applied before or during the early stages of infection. Current scouting methods can detect disease once signs or symptoms are present, but to optimize the timing of fungicide applications and protect crop yield, a method for early detection of soilborne diseases is needed. Previous studies have utilized optical sensors combined with machine learning analysis for the early detection of plant diseases, but these studies mainly focused on foliar diseases. Few studies have applied these technologies for the early detection of soilborne diseases in field crops, including peanut. Thus, the overall goal of this research was to integrate sensor technologies, modern data analytic tools, and properties of standard and newly registered fungicides to develop improved management strategies for stem rot control in peanuts. The specific objectives of this work were to 1) characterize the spectral and thermal responses of peanut to infection with A. rolfsii under controlled conditions, 2) identify optimal wavelengths to detect stem rot of peanut using hyperspectral sensor and machine learning, and 3) evaluate the standard and newly registered peanut fungicides with different modes of action for stem rot control in peanuts using a laboratory bioassay. For Objective 1, spectral reflectance and leaf temperature of peanut plants were measured by spectral and thermal sensors in controlled greenhouse experiments. Differences in sensor-based responses between A. rolfsii-infected and non-infected plants were detected 0 to 1 day after observation of foliar disease symptoms. In addition, spectral responses of peanut to the infection of A. rolfsii were more pronounced and consistent than thermal changes as the disease progressed. Objective 2 aimed to identify specific signatures of stem rot from reflectance data collected in Objective 1 utilizing a machine learning approach. Wavelengths around 505, 690, and 884 nm were repeatedly selected by different methods. The top 10 wavelengths identified by the recursive feature selection methods performed as well as all bands for the classification of healthy peanut plants and plants at different stages of disease development. Whereas the first two objectives focused on disease detection, Objective 3 focused on disease control and compared the properties of different fungicides that are labeled for stem rot control in peanut using a laboratory bioassay of detached peanut tissues. All of the foliar-applied fungicides evaluated provided inhibition of A. rolfsii for up to two weeks on plant tissues that received a direct application. Succinate dehydrogenase inhibitors provided less basipetal protection of stem tissues than quinone outside inhibitor or demethylation inhibitor fungicides. Overall, results of this research provide a foundation for developing sensor/drone-based methods that use disease-specific spectral indices for scouting in the field and for making fungicide application recommendations to manage stem rot of peanut and other soilborne diseases. / Doctor of Philosophy / Plant diseases are a major constraint to crop production worldwide. Developing effective and economical management strategies for these diseases, including selection of proper fungicide chemistries and making timely fungicide application, is dependent on the ability to accurately detect and diagnose their signs and/or symptoms prior to widespread development in a crop. Optical sensors combined with machine learning analysis are promising tools for automated crop disease detection, but research is still needed to optimize and validate methods for the detection of specific plant diseases. The overarching goal of this research was to use the peanut-stem rot plant disease system to identify and evaluate sensor-based technologies and different fungicide chemistries that can be utilized for the management of soilborne plant diseases. The specific objectives of this work were to 1) characterize the temporal progress of spectral and thermal responses of peanut to infection and colonization with Athelia rolfsii, the causal agent of peanut stem rot 2) identify optimal wavelengths to detect stem rot of peanut using hyperspectral sensor and machine learning, and 3) evaluate standard and newly registered peanut fungicides with different modes of action for stem rot control in peanuts using a laboratory bioassay. Results of this work demonstrate that spectral reflectance measurements are able to distinguish between diseased and healthy plants more consistently than thermal measurements. Several wavelengths were identified using machine learning approaches that can accurately differentiate between peanut plants with symptoms of stem rot and non-symptomatic plants. In addition, a new method was developed to select the top-ranked, non-redundant wavelengths with a custom distance. These selected wavelengths performed better than using all wavelengths, providing a basis for designing low-cost optical filters to specifically detect this disease. In the laboratory bioassay evaluation of fungicides, all of the foliar-applied fungicides provided inhibition of A. rolfsii for up to two weeks on leaf tissues that received a direct application. Percent inhibition of A. rolfsii decreased over time, and the activity of all fungicides decreased at a similar rate. Overall, the findings of this research provide a foundation for developing sensor-based methods for disease scouting and making fungicide application recommendations to manage stem rot of peanut and other soilborne diseases.

Thesis (MScAgric)--Stellenbosch University, 1998. / ENGLISH ABSTRACT: Eyespot is an important disease of spring wheat (Triticum aestivum L.). Four species of Ramulispora are associated with this disease, of which Tapesia yallundae and T. acuformis. are common. This thesis investigates the broader subjects of genetic variability, reproductive dynamics and fungicide resistance in Tapesia yallundae. Each of the chapters treats specific but related topics. T. yallundae, which is the only species thus far reported from South Africa, has been associated with yield losses of up to 50%. To enable the implementation of more accurate and effective control measures, understanding the dynamics of reproduction and the genetics of the pathogen is of utmost importance. Of the many plant disease control measures such as cultural practices, sanitation, biological control, etc., fungicide application is the most commonly resorted to measure in eyespot control. This thesis investigates the broader subjects of genetic variability, reproductive dynamics and fungicide resistance of Tapesia yallzll7dae. Fungicide application, however, is not without problems. The pathogen can build up resistance to fungicides. The most commonly used fungicides in eyespot control include the benzimidazole carbendazim, triazoles such as flusilazole, tebuconazole, propiconazole, bromuconazole, flutriafol, fenbuconazole, triademinol, and the imidazole, prochloraz. Cases of resistance to the groups listed above have been reported. Frequent monitoring for resistance is thus crucial to prevent wastage of fungicide and unnecessary impregnantation of the environment with potentially ineffective chemicals. In chapter 2 of this thesis 300 isolates of T. yallundae from 15 fields were evaluated for resistance against carbendazim, flusilazole, tebuconazole, propiconazole, bromuconazole, flutriafol and fenbuconazole. These results indicated that to some triazoles, such as fenbuconazole, a high level of resistance was already present in field populations. In a sexually reproducing fungus such as T. yallundae, knowledge pertaining to its ability to pass resistance factors to offspring is equally important. Mating studies were, therefore, also conducted with parental strains that showed signs of triazole resistance. Three generations were subsequently tested for resistance to five triazoles, namely flusilazole, tebuconazole, propiconazole, bromuconazole and flutriafol. Results of this study showed variable sensitivity in progeny, which indicated quantitative inheritance of resistance to triazoles. Although the sexual stage has not yet been observed in the field in South Africa, this knowledge lays the foundation for the long-term understanding of the population dynamics of the fungus. The ability of a heterothallic ascomycete population to reproduce sexually is dependent on the availability of its two mating types, MATI-I and MATI-2, their distribution, and female fertility amongst other factors. In the UK. the teleomorph is commonly observed in the field, which is in contrast to the situation in South Africa, where it has only been induced in the laboratory. A comparative study between the South African and the UK. populations was therefore undertaken. Isolates representative of the two populations were mated with tester strains as both sperm recipients and as sperm donors. This allowed the percentage of hermaphrodites to be determined. No difference in terms of female fertility was observed between the South African and the UK. populations, with both populations showing low effective population numbers. These data suggested, therefore, that the teleomorph would also occur more frequently in South Africa if the climate was more indusive to its development. The overall results of this study indicated that eyes pot could still be controlled by means of fungicide application in South Africa. Although a shift in sensitivity was observed towards fenbuconazole and flusilazole, no resistance was detected towards carbendazim. The latter might be due to the absen<.:eof the sexual stage in the field, coupled by the monocyclic nature of the pathogen and sensible fungicide regimes. The absence of T. acujormis makes the disease situation less complicated in terms of fungicide application and management. Continuous surveys will have to be conducted, however, to monitor this situation in future. / AFRIKAANSE OPSOMMING: Hierdie studie ondersoek die genetiese variasie, reproduksie dinamika en fungisied weerstand in Tapesia yallundae. Elke hoofstuk handel oor spesifieke maar verwante onderwerpe. Oogvlek is 'n belangrike siekte van lentekoring (Triticum aestivum L.). Vier spesies van Ramulispora word geassosieer met die siekte, waarvan Tapesia yallundae en T. acuformis mees algemeen voorkom. T. yallundae, wat tans die enigste spesie is wat in Suid-Afrika aangeteken is, het al verliese van tot 50% veroorsaak. Om meer akkurate en effektiewe beheermaatreels te implementeer, is dit noodsaaklik om die oorlewingsdinamika van die patogeen te verstaan. Van al die siektebeheermaatreels soos kulturele praktyke, sanitasie, biologiese beheer ens., bly fungisiedbehandeling die mees algemene maatreel vir die beheer van oogvlek. Fungisiedtoediening het egter ook verskeie probleme. Die patogeen kan weerstand opbou teen die fungisied. Die mees algemene fungisiedes wat vir oogvlekbeheer aangewend word sluit onder meer die benzimidasool karbendazim in, triasole soos flusilasool, tebukonasool, propikonasool, bromukonasool, flutriafol, fenbukonasool, triadimenol, en die imidasool, prochloraz. Weerstand is egter reeds teen hierdie middels bekend. Gedurige monitering vir weerstand is dus krities om die vermorsing van fungisied en besoedeling van die omgewing met oneffektiewe middels te beperk. In hoofstuk 2 van hierdie manuskrip word 300 isolate van T. yallundae van 15 lande geevalueer vir weerstand teenoor karbendazim, flusilasool, tebukonasool, propikonasool, bromukonasool, flutriafol en fenbukonasool. Resultate dui daarop dat teen sommige van hierdie triasole, soos bv. fenbukonasool, daar reeds 'n hoe vlak van weerstand teenwoordig was in veldpopulasies. In 'n seksueel reproduserende fungus soos T. yalluJ1dae, is dit noodsaaklik om te bepaal wat sy vermoe is om weerstandbiedenheid aan die nageslag oor te dra. Om die rede is paringstudies ook op ouers wat tekens van weerstand teenoor triasole getoon het uitgevoer. Drie generasies was gevolglik getoets vir weerstand teenoor vyf triasole, naamlik flusilasool, tebuconasool, propikonasool, brumukonasool en flutriafol. Resultate van die studie het 'n variasie in sensitiwiteit van die nageslag getoon, wat op 'n kwantitatiewe oorerwing van weerstand teen £riasole dui. Alhoewel die teleomorf nog nie in lande in Suid-Afrika opgemerk is nie, Ie hierdie kennis die fondament vir die langtermyn vertolking van die populasie dinamika van hierdie fungus. Die vermoe van 'n heterotalliese askomiseet populasie om seksueel voort te plant is afhanklik van die beskikbaarheid van sy twee paringstipes, MATI-I en MATl-2, hul verpreiding, vroulike vrugbaarheid en ander faktore. Alhoewel die teleomorf algemeen in lande in die Verenigde Koninkryk opgemerk word, is dit in kontras met die situasie in Suid-Afrika, waar hierdie stadium nog slegs in die laboratorium gelnduseer kon word. 'n Studie is dus onderneem om die Suid-Afrikaanse en V.K. populasies met mekaar te vergelyk. Isolate van die twee populasies is dus gepaar met paringsisolate as beide sperm ontvangers en sperm donors. Hierdie prosedure het dit moontlik gemaak om die persentasie hermafrodiete te bepaal. Geen verskille in vroulike fertiliteit is tussen die Suid-Afrikaanse en V.K. populasies bespeur nie, en beide populasies het ook 'n lae effektiewe populasie getal getoon. Hierdie data het dus voorgestel dat die teleomorf ook meer algemeen in Suid-Afrika sou voorkom as die klimaat meer geskik was vir teleomorf vormmg. Die resultate van hierdie studie het tot die slotsom gelei dat oogvlek steeds deur fungisiedbehandeling in Suid-Afrika beheer kan word. Alhoewel daar 'n merkbare verskuiwing in sensitiwiteit teenoor fenbukonasool en flusilasool was, was geen weerstand teenoor karbendazim waargeneem nie. Laasgenoemde kan dalk toegeskryf word aan die afwesigheid van die teleomorf in die veld, gekombineer met die monosikliese natuur van die patogeen en gebruik van alternerende fungisiedes. Die afwesigheid van T. acuformis maak die plaaslike siektetoestand minder gekompliseerd in terme van fungisied aanwending en bestuur. Voortdurende opnames sal egter uitgevoer moet word om hierdie situasie ook in die toekoms te monitor.

O objetivo desse trabalho foi quantificar e caracterizar danos pós-colheita em pêssegos comercializados na Companhia de Entrepostos e Armazéns Gerais de São Paulo - CEAGESP e testar produtos sanificantes no controle de podridão parda (Monilinia fructicola) e podridão mole (Rhizopus spp.). Para tanto, foram realizadas vinte avaliações semanais, entre as safras de 2003 e 2004, amostrando-se 1% do total de caixas de pêssegos em cinco permissionários que comercializam esta fruta. As amostragens foram estratificadas por variedade, calibre e produtor. Em todos os frutos de cada amostra foram quantificados os danos abióticos e as doenças pré e póscolheita. Os patógenos Monilinia fructicola e Rhizopus spp. foram cultivados em meio de cultura para realização dos experimentos de controle in vitro e in vivo utilizando cloreto de benzalcônio, dióxido de cloro, Ecolife40&#174; e hipoclorito de cálcio, realizados de forma curativa e preventiva, além do gás ozônio aplicado somente curativamente. A incidência média de frutos danificados foi de 42% em 2003 e 32% em 2004, sendo subdivididos em injúrias mecânicas pré-colheita 18 e 12% em 2003 e 2004, respectivamente, e pós-colheita 12% em 2003 e 13% em 2004; doenças pré-colheita 3 e 1% em 2003 e 2004, respectivamente, e pós-colheita 4% em 2003 e 2% em 2004. O fungo do gênero Cladosporium sp. foi o patógeno que mais ocorreu nas safras avaliadas com 30% em 2003 e 28% em 2004. Injúria mecânica foi o tipo de dano póscolheita mais freqüente em pêssegos. Pêssegos da variedade Aurora foram os mais sensíveis às doenças pós-colheita. Nos testes in vitro cloreto de benzalcônio e Ecolife40&#174;, ambos na concentração de 1000 ppm, inibiram totalmente o crescimento da M. fructicola. Nenhum dos produtos testados foi eficiente no controle de Rhizopus spp. in vitro. Nos testes in vivo, somente o cloreto de benzalcônio na concentração de 2 mL. L-1 e Ecolife40&#174; a 3 mL. L-1, quando aplicados nos pêssegos de forma preventiva, reduziram significativamente a podridão parda em relação à testemunha, em frutos sem ferimento. O cloreto de benzalcônio inibiu a infecção de Monilinia fructicola em todas as concentrações utilizadas, quando aplicado de forma curativa em pêssegos sem ferimento. Hipoclorito de cálcio a 0,1, 0,2 e 0,3 g. L-1 e dióxido de cloro a 2 e 3 mL. L-1 também apresentaram inibição no crescimento de Monilinia fructicola nos testes curativos e inoculados sem ferimentos. Nenhum produto aplicado de forma curativa foi significativamente eficiente para impedir o desenvolvimento da podridão parda, quando a inoculação do fungo foi realizada sobre ferimentos no fruto. Nos experimentos, in vivo, realizados com Rhizopus spp. nenhum dos produtos e formas de tratamentos testados foram eficientes. O gás ozônio não foi eficiente, na concentração de 0,1 ppm, no controle de podridões parda e mole em pêssegos. / The purposes of this study were to quantify and characterize postharvest damages in peaches commercialized at the Companhia de Entrepostos e Armazéns Gerais de Sao Paulo ? CEAGESP, Brazil, as well as to evaluate the effectiveness of sanitizing products in controlling brown rot (Monilinia fructicola) and soft rot (Rhizopus spp.). Twenty weekly evaluations were carried out in 2003 and 2004 and 1% of all peach boxes from five concessionaires was sampled. Samples were stratified according to cultivar, caliber and grower. Every fruit in each sample was assessed as to abiotic damages and pre and postharvest diseases. The pathogens Monilinia fructicola and Rhizopus spp. were grown in culture medium to enable the conduction of the in vitro and in vivo experiments with benzalkonium chloride, chlorine dioxide, Ecolife40&#174; and calcium hypochlorite used curatively and preventively, and ozone gas used only curatively. Average incidences of damaged fruits were 42% and 32% in 2003 and 2004, respectively, involving 18% and 12% pre harvest mechanical injuries, 12% and 13% postharvest injuries, 3% and 1% pre harvest diseases and 4% and 2% postharvest diseases, in 2003 and 2004, respectively. The fungus Cladosporium sp. was the most prevalent pathogen (30% in 2003 and 28% in 2004) in the periods evaluated. Postharvest mechanical injuries were the most common damages in peaches. Peaches cv. Aurora were the most susceptible to postharvest diseases. Benzalkonium chloride and Ecolife40&#174;, both at 1000 ppm, completely inhibited the growth of M. fructicola in in vitro experiments. None of the products tested in this study was effective in the in vitro control of Rhizopus spp. Only the in vivo preventive treatment with benzalkonium chloride at 2 mL. L-1 and Ecolife40&#174; at 3 mL. L-1 promoted significant reduction in brown rot in non-injured peaches when compared to control fruits. The curative use of benzalkonium chloride at all concentrations tested inhibited the infection by Monilinia fructicola in non-injured peaches. The curative application of calcium hypochlorite at 0,1; 0,2 and 0,3 g. L-1 and chlorine dioxide at 2,0 and 3,0 mL. L-1 also inhibited the growth of Monilinia fructicola in non-injured peaches. None of the products tested in curative treatments was significantly effective in preventing the development of brown rot when the fungus was inoculated on injured fruits. None of the products tested was effective in the in vivo control of Rhizopus spp. Ozone gas at 0,1 ppm was not effective in controlling brown rot and soft rot in peaches.

O psilídeo Diaphorina citri é vetor das bactérias Candidatus Liberibacter asiaticus e Ca. L. americanus, associadas ao Huanglongbing (HLB) dos citros. Apesar da grande importância desta doença no mundo, sabe-se pouco sobre a atividade alimentar deste vetor, o que seria fundamental para entender o processo de transmissão desses patógenos e aprimorar estratégias de manejo da doença. Assim, esta pesquisa teve por objetivos: a) examinar aspectos morfológicos do aparato bucal de D. citri; b) caracterizar o seu comportamento alimentar em mudas de laranja doce (Citrus sinensis) através da técnica de Electrical Penetration Graph (EPG)-sistema DC; e c) avaliar o efeito da idade de folhas cítricas na penetração estiletar deste inseto e na eficiência de aquisição de Ca. L. asiaticus. Adultos de D. citri apresentam um rostro que se projeta logo após o par de coxas protoráxicas. Verificou-se que na extremidade distal desta estrutura há quatro pares de sensilas em simetria bilateral. O rostro abriga um feixe de quatro estiletes (2 mandíbulas e 2 maxilas) com comprimento médio de 512 µm. Os estiletes maxilares se acoplam formando os canais alimentar e salivar com diâmetros de 0,90 µm e 0,47 µm, respectivamente; esses dois canais se fundem próximo à extremidade distal de uma das maxilas para formar um canal comum, que se estende por, aproximadamente, 4,1 µm. No estudo de EPG, as formas de onda foram descritas quanto à amplitude, frequência, nível de voltagem e origem elétrica, sendo correlacionadas com atividades estiletares baseando-se em análises histológicas da posição da extremidade distal da bainha salivar no tecido vegetal e semelhanças com outras formas de onda descritas para afídeos. Cinco formas de onda foram descritas: (C) penetração intercelular no parênquima; (D) contato com o floema; (E1) salivação no floema; (E2) ingestão no floema; e (G) ingestão no xilema. Com um tempo médio de 206,1 min em 8 h de registro, a ingestão no floema (E2) é a principal atividade observada em D. citri. O tempo médio para atingir o floema desde a primeira prova é de 154 min, após 20,3 provas. D. citri mostra nítida preferência por folhas novas da porção superior da planta (71,3% dos indivíduos), e pela nervura principal na face abaxial das folhas (87,1%). Cortes histológicos revelam que folhas maduras apresentam lignificação nas paredes de células que compõem a camada de fibras, tecido que antecede o feixe floemático; já as folhas novas não apresentam esse espessamento, favorecendo o caminhamento estiletar rumo ao floema. Adultos de D. citri adquirem Ca. L. asiaticus com maior eficiência em folhas novas (assintomáticas) do que em folhas maduras (sintomáticas) de plantas infectadas. Aplicando-se a técnica de EPG, verificou-se que as folhas novas favorecem a alimentação floemática de D. citri; quase que a totalidade dos indivíduos avaliados sobre folhas novas assintomáticas encontraram o floema e permaneceram por mais tempo neste tecido, o que não foi constatado sobre folhas maduras sintomáticas. Esta pesquisa mostra que o comportamento alimentar de D. citri é influenciado pela idade das folhas cítricas, com implicações sobre a eficiência de aquisição da bactéria. / The Asian citrus psyllid, Diaphorina citri, is the vector of the phloem-limited bacteria Candidatus Liberibacter asiaticus and Ca. L. americanus, which are associated to the serious disease known as Citrus Huanglongbing (HLB). Despite the importance of this disease worldwide, little is known about the feeding activities of the vector, which is essential to understand transmission mechanisms and establish disease management strategies. Thus, the goals of this research were to examine the morphology of D. citri mouth apparatus, to characterize its probing behavior on sweet orange (Citrus sinensis) seedlings by using the Electrical Penetration Graph (EPG)-DC technique, and to assess the effect of citrus leaf age on the stylet penetration and efficiency of acquisition of Ca. L. asiaticus. D. citri shows a coneshaped rostrum that extends itself to behind the prothoracic pair of thighs. By electron microscopy, we found four pairs of sensilla symmetrically distributed on the distal end of the rostrum. The rostrum houses a stylet bundle comprised of two mandibulae and two maxillae with mean length of 512 µm. The two maxillary stylets are hold together and have internal grooves that form the food and salivary duct, with mean diameters of 0.9 and 0.47 µm, respectively. These two canals merge at a distance of 4.1 µm from the distal tip of the stylets, forming a common duct. In the EPG study, waveforms were described according to characteristics of amplitude, frequency, voltage level and electrical origin, and correlated with stylet activities based on histological analysis of salivary sheath termini in the plant tissue and similarities with EPG waveforms previously described for aphids. Five distinct waveform types were described: (C) intercellular stylet pathway through parenchyma, (D) phloem contact, (E1) salivation in the phloem sieve tubes, (E2) phloem sap ingestion, and (G) in xylem sap ingestion. Phloem sap ingestion (E2) is the main activity observed for D. citri, with an average time of 206.1 min in 8 h of recordings. Mean time to reach sieve tubes from the first probe is 154 min, after 20.3 probes. This insect shows a clear preference for young leaves of the upper portion of the plant (71.3% of the individuals), and main vein on the abaxial leaf surface (87.1%). Mature leaves show lignification in cell walls of the fiber layer adjacent to the phloem. In contrast, young leaves do not show cell wall thickening in this fiber layer, favoring stylet pathway towards the phloem. Adults of D. citri acquired L. Ca asiaticus with greater efficiency on young (asymptomatic) leaves than in mature (symptomatic) leaves from infected plants. Applying the EPG technique, it was found that young asymptomatic leaves favor phloem feeding by D. citri, since most individuals reached phloem sieve tubes and remained longer in this tissue; this was not the case for individuals confined on mature symptomatic leaves. This study shows that feeding behavior of D. citri is influenced by citrus leaf age, with implication on efficiency of bacterial acquisition from infected plants.

A Clorose Variegada dos Citros (CVC), causada pela bactéria Xylella fastidiosa, é atualmente a doença de maior incidência no Estado de São Paulo. A incidência e a severidade da doença são maiores nas regiões Norte e Noroeste do Estado, onde o clima é predominantemente quente e com déficit hídrico, principalmente no inverno. Embora não haja nada comprovado, alguns estudos indicam que o déficit hídrico aumenta a severidade dos sintomas nas plantas afetadas pela CVC. Além disso, até hoje não foi estabelecida uma função que relacione doença e dano. Dessa forma, o estudo presente objetivou avaliar o efeito de diferentes níveis de irrigação no progresso poliético da CVC, avaliar métodos de avaliação da doença e determinar uma função de dano para a CVC. Para isso, um experimento foi instalado no município de Bebedouro, região Norte do Estado de São Paulo sob o delineamento blocos ao acaso no esquema fatorial 3 x 2, com os seguintes tratamentos: sem irrigação, irrigado com 50% e 100% da evapotranspiração da cultura (ETc), combinados com inoculação natural e artificial de X. fastidiosa. Cada parcela foi constituída de 6 plantas úteis, havendo 4 repetições de cada tratamento, totalizando 144 plantas úteis. As variáveis quantificadas em cada árvore do experimento foram: (a) produção, considerando frutos assintomáticos e sintomáticos, no período de 2006 a 2008 e produção total referente às safras 2001 a 2005; (b) intensidade da doença, através da incidência de ramos com sintomas da CVC e utilizando uma escala descritiva; (c) vigor da planta, estimado pela medida da altura da planta, diâmetro da copa, diâmetro do tronco, volume de copa e do índice de área foliar (IAF). O modelo monomolecular foi utilizado para descrever o progresso poliético da incidência da CVC, no período de 2006 a 2008, para todos os tratamentos. A partir desse modelo foi possível observar que plantas sem irrigação apresentam maior incidência de ramos com sintomas que plantas irrigadas a 100% da ETc, principalmente quando inoculadas de forma artificial. Esse resultado ficou ainda mais evidenciado quando se avalia o número de frutos com sintomas (ø < 50mm) da CVC por tratamento. Também foi possível observar que os sintomas nas plantas são distribuídos de forma irregular, apresentando um gradiente decrescente significativo da parte superior para inferior. As variáveis relacionadas ao vigor da planta, na sua maioria, não apresentaram relação alguma com a produção em todos os tratamentos. De modo geral, as plantas do tratamento irrigado a 100% da ETc combinado com inoculação natural apresentaram maior produção total, considerando as safras de 2001 a 2008. A relação entre CVC e dano pode ser descrita pela equação (y=114,067*exp(-0,017555)*x) onde y é a produção da planta em Kg e x a incidência de ramos com CVC em porcentagem. A escala descritiva não permitiu avaliação precisa e apresentou baixa correlação entre os avaliadores, o contrário foi observado realizando a avaliação da CVC através da incidência de ramos com sintomas. / The Citrus Variegated Chlorosis (CVC) caused by the bacteria Xylella fastidiosa is nowadays the disease with the most incidence in the state of São Paulo. The incidence and severity of the disease are greater in the Northern and Northwestern regions of the state where the climate is predominately warm and presents a water deficits especially in the winter. Although there is no definite proof, some studies indicate that the water deficits increases the severity of the symptoms in plants affected by the CVC. Besides, up to the present there has not been a function which relates the damage to an intensity of the disease. In that manner, the present study has been conducted in order to evaluate the effect of different irrigation levels on the polyetic progress of the CVC as well as to study methods of assessment of the disease and determine the relationship between disease intensity and yield. In order to carry out this study, an experiment was conducted in the city of Bebedouro north of São Paulo state. The experimental design was in randomized blocks in a 3 x 2 factorial scheme with the following treatments: no irrigation, irrigated with 50% and 100% of the evapotranspiration of the crop (ETc), combined with natural and artificial inoculation of X. fastidiosa. Each group was made of 6 useful plants, with 4 repetitions for each treatment, totalizing 144 useful plants. The variables quantified in each tree of the experiment were: (a) (a) yield, considering asymptomatic and symptomatic fruit in the period 2006 to 2008 and total yield on the crops from 2001 to 2005; (b) intensity of the disease through incidence of branches with symptoms of CVC and using a descriptive scale; (c) plant vigor, estimated through measure of height, crown diameter, trunk diameter, canopy volume and of the leaf area index (LAI). The monomolecular model was used to describe the polyetic progress of CVC incidence between 2006 and 2008 for all treatments. From this model it was possible to observe that plants without irrigation present greater incidence of branches with symptoms than the ones irrigated at 100% of ETc, especially when inoculated in an artificial manner. This result was even more evident when the number of fruit with symptoms is evaluated (ø < 50mm) of CVC per treatment. It was also possible to observe that the symptoms in the plants are scattered in an irregular way, presenting a significant decreasing rate from the upper to the lower part. Most of the variables related to the plant vigor did not present any relation to the production in all treatments. In general, the plants from the irrigated treatment at 100%of ETc combined with natural inoculation presented more total yield considering the harvests from 2001 to 2008. The relationship between CVC and damage can be described by the equation (y=114,067*exp(-0,017555)*x) where y is the plant yield in Kg and x is the incidence in percentage of branches with CVC. The descriptive scale did not allow accurate assessment and showed a low correlation between the raters, the opposite was observed performing the assessment of CVC through the incidence of branches with symptoms.

A ocorrência das doenças de final de ciclo causadas pelos fungos Septoria glycines e Cercospora kikuchii é facilmente observada no campo. Entretanto, são necessárias informações precisas sobre a quantificação de danos e perdas na produtividade, bem como, a definição da melhor época para aplicação de fungicidas. A falta de um método padrão de quantificação visual pode levar a estimativas imprecisas da severidade das mesmas, induzindo a conclusões erradas. Com os objetivos de elaborar e validar uma escala diagramática para a quantificação das doenças de final de ciclo da soja, avaliar o efeito dessas doenças sobre a produtividade, identificar o melhor estádio fenológico da cultura para o controle dessas doenças, verificar a relação entre a severidade dessas doenças e a produtividade e avaliar os efeitos das mesmas sobre a duração e absorção da área foliar sadia das plantas de soja, foram instalados experimentos na Fazenda Areão (ESALQ/USP), localizada em Piracicaba - SP. Utilizou-se o cultivar de soja MG/BR - 46 (Conquista), considerado suscetível a essas doenças, adotando-se o delineamento experimental de blocos ao acaso, no esquema fatorial 2 x 3 (dois fungicidas: benomyl e tebuconazole e três momentos fenológicos de pulverização: R4, R5.3 e R6) com três tratamentos adicionais (testemunha, pulverização quinzenal de benomyl e pulverização quinzenal de tebuconazole), repetidos três vezes. Determinou-se a severidade dessas doenças; o número de vagens e de sementes por planta; a massa de 1000 sementes e a produtividade. Para quantificação da severidade dessas doenças foi elaborada uma escala diagramática a partir de folhas coletadas em campo, apresentando diferentes níveis de severidade. A área de cada folha e sua correspondente severidade foram determinadas e, seguindo-se a "Lei do Estímulo de Weber-Fechner", elaborou-se a escala com os níveis de severidade de doença: 2,4; 15,2; 25,9; 40,5 e 66,6%. A validação foi realizada por nove avaliadores, sem experiência na avaliação das doenças de final de ciclo, os quais estimaram a severidade de 30 folíolos de soja com sintomas destas doenças. A precisão das avaliações variou de acordo com o avaliador (0,84<R 2 <0,65), bem como a acurácia (0,00<a<3,40; 0,90<b<1,29), não ocorrendo erro sistemático na superestimativa ou subestimativa da doença entre os avaliadores. Com base nos resultados obtidos em três safras agrícolas consecutivas (1999/2000, 2000/2001 e 2001/2002), pôde-se concluir que: a) a escala diagramática desenvolvida é adequada para a quantificação da severidade das doenças de final de ciclo em soja; b) as doenças de final de ciclo, quando em severidade inferior a 10%, não afetam o número de vagens e sementes produzidos por planta mas, causam redução na produtividade da soja; c) os fungicidas benomyl e tebuconazole podem ser utilizados no controle dessas doenças; d) não foi possível determinar a época fenológica mais adequada para a pulverização de fungicidas, que proporcionasse aumentos na produtividade da soja; e) em severidade dessas doenças abaixo de 10%, não existe relação entre esta variável, a massa de 1000 sementes e a produtividade; f) a absorção da área foliar sadia é a variável que melhor expressa a relação entre a severidade dessas doenças e a produtividade da soja. / The occurrence of late season leaf diseases caused by the fungus Septoria glycines and Cercospora kikuchii is easily identified in field. However, there is a need of precise information to quantify the damage and yield losses as well as to define the best occasions for fungicide applications. The lack of a standardized visual method may lead to inaccurate estimates of their severity, inducing inexact conclusions. With the purposes: to elaborate and validate a diagrammatic scale to assess late season leaf soybean diseases; to evaluate the effect of theses diseases on yield; to identify the best soybean growth stages for chemical control; to verify the relation between severity of theses diseases and yield and to evaluate the effect of theses diseases on healthy leaf area duration and healthy leaf area absorption, were installed field experiments at Fazenda Areão (ESALQ/USP), in Piracicaba - SP. The soybean cultivar MG/BR - 46 (Conquista), susceptible to both diseases was sown in a complete randomized blocks design in factorial 2 x 3 (two fungicides: benomyl and tebuconazole and three application stages: R4, R5.3 e R6) and three extra treatments (control without application, fortnightly application of benomyl and fortnightly application of tebuconazole), at three replications. The severity, the pod number per plant, the seed number per pod, the mass of 1,000 seed and yield were determined. To quantify the severity of these diseases it was elaborated a diagrammatic scale, from leaves collected in the field presenting different levels of severity. The area of each leaf and its correspondent severity were determined, and following the "Stimulus Law by Weber-Fechner" a scale was elaborated with the severity levels: 2.4, 15.2, 25.9, 40.5 and 66.6%. The validation was carried out by nine appraisers, without previous practice in assessing late season leaf diseases, who estimate the severity on 30 leaflets of soybean with disease symptoms. The evaluation precision varied according to the appraiser (0.84<R 2 <0.65), as well as the accuracy (0.00<a<3.40; 0.90<b<1.29), do not occurring systematic mistakes in the super or underestimation of the disease among the appraisers. Based on the obtained results in three consecutive crop seasons (1999/2000, 2000/2001 e 2001/2002), it was possible to conclude that: a) the developed diagrammatic scale is appropriate to quantify the late season leaf diseases severity of soybean; b) the late season leaf diseases, when in severity below 10%, do not affect the number of pod and seeds per plant but cause reduction of yield; c) the fungicides benomyl and tebuconazole may be used to control these diseases; d) it was not possible to determine the most appropriate growth stage for fungicide application, which result in yield gain; e) under severity below 10% there are not relation between this variable and the mass of 1,000 seed and yield; f) the healthy leaf area absorption is the variable which most express the relation between the severity of this diseases and the soybean yield.

A soja é a cultura de grãos mais importante no Brasil. Na safra de 2010/11 ocupou uma área de 24 milhões de hectares, se destacando como principal oleaginosa produzida e consumida no mundo. Alguns fatores podem limitar a produção da soja, entre eles as doenças. A mancha- alvo (Corynespora cassiicola) é frequente nas em todas as regiões produtoras de soja no Brasil e nos últimos anos tem se atribuído prejuízos crescentes à doença. Os objetivos deste trabalho foram: determinar a faixa ideal de temperatura para o crescimento micelial de diferentes isolados de C. cassiicola; verificar a esporulação em função do meio de cultura; avaliar a germinação de conídios sob diferentes períodos de molhamento foliar; estudar o efeito da temperatura e molhamento foliar nos componentes monocíclicos e realizar estudos de quantificação de danos. Para avaliar o efeito da temperatura no crescimento micelial, diferentes isolados foram mantidos nas temperaturas de 5°C, 10°C, 15°C, 20°C, 25°C, 30°C e 35°C. A temperatura mínima e máxima estimada pela função beta generalizada para o crescimento micelial foi de 6,9°C e 33°C, respectivamente. A esporulação foi estudada nos meios de cultura BDA e Czapek. Os dados obtidos foram comparados por meio do teste Scott-Knott (P<0,05). A produção de conídios foi variável em função do isolado, tanto em meio BDA como Czapek. O ensaio de germinação foi feito em folhas de soja utilizando-se diferentes períodos de molhamento foliar (2, 6, 12, 24, 48 e 72 horas). A contagem de conídios germinados foi feita em microscópio eletrônico de varredura. A germinação de conídios na superfície das folhas foi verificada a partir do período de 6 horas. Para o estudo dos componentes monocíclicos as temperaturas testadas foram 10ºC, 15ºC, 20ºC, 25 ºC e 30ºC e os períodos de molhamento foliar foram 12, 24, 48 e 72 horas. As variáveis quantificadas foram a severidade, o número e o diâmetro das lesões. Os dados foram ajustados às funções beta generalizada e monomolecular. A temperatura mínima, máxima e ótima capazes de promover o desenvolvimento da mancha-alvo foram de 18°C, 32°C e 27°C, respectivamente. O período de molhamemto foliar de 48 horas resultou em maior desenvolvimento da doença. No ensaio de quantificação de danos, cultivares comerciais foram semeadas em duas épocas. Os componentes avaliados em campo foram: a severidade, a área foliar, o indice vegetativo da diferença normalizada (NDVI) e a produtividade (kg ha-1). Com o uso destes dados foram calculadas a área abaixo da curva de progresso da doença (AACPD), a área abaixo da curva de progresso do índice de área foliar (AULIAPC), o indice de área foliar (LAI), o indice de área foliar sadia (HLAI), a duração da área foliar sadia (HAD) e a absorção da área foliar sadia (HAA). Neste ensaio verificou-se que valores de severidade de até 37% no dossel inferior não causam danos no patossistema C.cassicola - soja. As variáveis HLAI e AULAIPC se correlacionaram com a produtividade e podem ser úteis para estudos futuros de quantificação de danos para este patossistema. / Soybean is the most important grain crop in Brazil. The production of 2010/11 occupied an area of 24 million hectares, becoming the most important oilseed produced and consumed worldwide. Some factors, such as diseases, may limit soybean production. The target spot caused by Corynespora cassiicola is frequent in all soybean producing regions in Brazil and in the past years, an increasing loss has been assigned to it. The aims of the present study were to determine the ideal temperature range for mycelial growth of different isolates of C. cassiicola; verify the sporulation in relation to the culture medium; evaluate the conidia germination under different periods of leaf wetness; study the effect of the temperature and the leaf wetness on the monocyclic components and carry out studies of crop loss in the field. In order to evaluate the effect of the temperature on the mycelial growth, different isolates were cultivated at the temperatures of 5°C, 10°C, 15°C, 20°C, 25°C, 30°C and 35°C. The minimum and maximum estimated temperature by the beta function to provide C.cassiicola mycelial growth was 6.9 °C and 33 °C, respectively. The sporulation was analyzed in PDA and Czapek culture media. The results obtained were compared through the Scott-Knott test (P <0.05). The conidia production varied according to each isolate on both PDA and Czapek medias. The germination test was carried out in soybean leaves using different leaf wetness periods (0, 12, 24, 48 and 72 hours). The germinated conidia measurement was done in a scanning electron microscope. The conidia germination on the leaves surface was observed from 6 hours. The temperatures used to study the monocyclic components were 10 º C, 15 º C, 20 º C, 25 º C and 30 º C and the leaf wetness periods were 12, 24, 48 and 72 hours. The variables quantified were severity, number and diameter of lesions. The data were adjusted to the generalized beta and monomolecular functions. The minimum, maximum and optimum temperature able to promote the development of target spot in soybean leaves were 18 ° C, 32 ° C and 27 ° C, respectively. The 48- hour leaf wetness resulted in greater development of the disease. For damage quantification, commercial cultivars were sown in two sowing times. The components evaluated in the field were: severity, leaf area, normalized difference vegetation index (NDVI) and grain yield (kg ha-1). Using these data, it was calculated the area under disease progress curve (AUDPC), area under the leaf area index progress curve (AULIAPC), leaf area index (LAI), healthy leaf area index (HLAI), healthy area duration (HAD) and healthy area absorption area (HAA). The severity values up to 37% in the lower canopy do not cause crop loss in C.cassicola - soybean pathosystem .The variables HLAI and AULAIPC correlated with grain yield and may be useful for future studies of crop loss for this pathosystem.

A produção de batata no Brasil é migratória, devido à alta ocorrência de doenças de solo onde seu cultivo é realizado anualmente após a cultura do milho (Zea mays) e o preparo de solo é feito com grade aradora, implemento cujo uso freqüente estabelece impedimentos físicos. O presente trabalho avaliou um sistema de preparo profundo de solo associado ao cultivo de três diferentes gramíneas Panicum maximum cv. Tanzânia, Brachiaria brizantha cv. Marandu e milho híbrido Dekalb 191 quanto a sua capacidade de promover melhores condições físicas de solo, assim como sua influência sobre a produtividade e ocorrência de doenças na cultura da batata. O preparo de solo alternativo foi capaz de promover melhores condições físicas de solo e, mesmo após dois ciclos da sucessão de culturas, não houve influência da espécie de gramínea utilizada sobre os parâmetros avaliados, embora essas plantas tenham apresentado características diferentes quanto à produção de raízes e de parte aérea. As melhores condições físicas de solo foram responsáveis pelo aumento da produtividade e da qualidade de tubérculos, obtido com o preparo profundo de solo, mas não influenciou a ocorrência de doenças e de outros danos aos tubérculos. A incidência de doenças em geral foi baixa e isso indica que um trabalho com maior número de ciclos da sucessão de culturas seria necessário para testar a hipótese de que o sistema de preparo de solo e sucessão de culturas avaliado descartaria a necessidade de migração na cultura da batata. / Potato crop migrates continually in Brazil, due to the high incidence of soil diseases where potato is cultivated every year after a maize (Zea mays) crop cycle and when chisel plough, which causes sub-superficial compaction, is used for soil management. This work evaluated a soil deep tillage system associated to three different grasses, Panicum maximum cv. Tanzânia, Brachiaria brizantha cv. Marandu and maize Dekalb 191 in order to improve soil physical conditions and to reduce potato soil diseases incidence. The soil deep tillage system improved soil physical conditions and, although the evaluated grasses presented different characteristics of root and shoot production, the grass specie did not influence the evaluated soil parameters and potato productivity after two years of research. The soil physical improvement promoted higher potato yield and quality in the soil deep tillage system but did not influence diseases incidence and other damages to the tubers, assessed after harvesting. The average disease incidence was low, which meant a longer term work was necessary to show if the soil deep tillage system associated to grasses would avoid the Brazilian potato crop migration.

As algas produzem uma grande diversidade de compostos com atividade biológica, inclusive que agem diretamente sobre vírus ou como indutores de fitoalexinas. Em vista disso, foi investigada a redução de sintomas causados por Tobacco mosaic vírus (TMV) em plantas de fumo tratadas com cianobactérias ou algas eucarióticas, além de se tentar elucidar o modo de ação das algas no patossistema estudado. Quando as plantas de fumo foram tratadas dois dias antes da inoculação, foi verificado que suspensões dos isolados 004/02, 008/02, 061/02, Anabaena sp. e Nostoc sp. 61, bem como as preparações do conteúdo intracelular do isolado 004/02 (4 C) e do filtrado do meio de cultivo do isolado 061/02 (61 M) apresentaram efeito na redução dos sintomas de TMV em plantas de fumo, cultivar TNN. Além disso, foi estudado o efeito direto das algas sobre as partículas de vírus. Os resultados mostraram que os isolados Anabaena sp., Nostoc sp. 21, Nostoc sp. 61 e 090/02 apresentam compostos que agem diretamente sobre o TMV. Para tentar elucidar o mecanismo de ação das algas no patossistema estudado, diversos parâmetros bioquímicos foram investigados. Foi detectado que a preparação 4 C aumentou a atividade de peroxidases e que todos os tratamentos analizados reduziram a atividade de &#946;-1,3-glucanase em folhas de fumo a partir do quarto dia após o tratamento das plantas. Por sua vez, as suspensões dos isolados 008/02 e 061/02 e a preparação 61 M proporcionaram maior acúmulo de superóxido, enquanto que a preparação 4 C reduziu o acúmulo de peróxido de hidrogênio, em relação aos controles água destilada e meio de cultura BG 11, 37 horas após a inoculação do vírus. Em vista disso, as algas podem ser utilizadas como agentes de controle biológico, por apresentar ação direta sobre fitopatógenos ou alterarem o metabolismo de plantas, o que pode estar associado com a sintese de compostos de defesa. / Algae produce several different compounds that show biological activity, including ones with antiviral activity or that act as phytoalexin inducers. Thus, it was investigated the reduction of Tobacco mosaic virus (TMV) symptoms on tobacco plants treated with cyanobacteria or eukaryotic algae, and it was studied the way of action of algae on the studied pathosystem. When the tobacco plants were treated two days before the inoculation, it was verified that the suspension of 004/02, 008/02, 061/02 Anabaena sp., and Nostoc sp. 61 strains as well as the intracellular preparation of 004/02 strain (4 C) and the medium filtrated from 061/02 strain (61 M) reduced TMV symptoms on tobacco plants, cultivar TNN. Furthermore, it was studied the direct effect of the algae suspensions on virus particles. The results showed that Anabaena sp., Nostoc sp. 21, Nostoc sp. 61 and 090/02 strains have compounds with direct activity on TMV. To try to elucidate the way of the action of algae, on the studied pathosystem, several biochemical parameters were investigated. It was seen that the preparation 4 C increase peroxidase activity and all treatments decrease &#946;-1,3-glucanase activity on tobacco leaves from the forth day on after the treatment. Moreover, 008/02 and 061/02 strains and the 61 M preparation caused higher superoxide accumulation, and the preparation 4 C decreased hydrogen peroxide accumulation when compared to the controls distilled water and BG 11 medium 37 hour after virus inoculation. In this way, the algae could be a biocontrol agents, because it shows direct action on phytopathogens and/or change the metabolism of the plants, that could be associated with the synthesis of deffence compounds.