A greenhouse pot study was conducted on three soils with varying clay contents to establish K critical value at -3 and -1/3 bar soil moisture levels. Four K fertilizer treatments (0, 0.07, 0.14, and 0.3 g/pot) replicated three times were arranged in a complete randomized block design. The Cate-Nelson graphical procedure revealed that K critical values for corn and soybeans were not equal at the two designated moisture levels. The corresponding percentage yield however was higher at -1/3 bars for corn and at -3 bars for soybean. Statistical regression analysis showed that there was a minor response in plant tissue K to changes in soil test K at both soil moisture levels. The ANOVA at 0.05 significance level showed the observed data were consistent with the null hypothesis that there was no significant difference between plant percentage yield and the increasing K fertilizer application rates at the two moisture levels.

A cana-de-açúcar é uma das principais culturas agroindustriais do Brasil, sendo amplamente cultivada para a produção de açúcar e etanol. Esta cultura se torna a cada dia mais importante no cenário mundial, devido à busca constante por fontes de energia alternativas e mais sustentáveis. Para atender a crescente demanda, é necessária a liberação frequente de novas variedades, mais adaptadas às regiões de cultivo e tolerantes às alterações ambientais. Assim, o estabelecimento da metodologia de transformação genética além de contribuir para o estudo funcional de genes de interesse é uma metodologia alternativa para obtenção de novas variedades. O processo de obtenção de transgênicos é dependente de um eficiente protocolo de regeneração de plantas in vitro, que geralmente envolve uma fase de formação de células indiferenciadas (calos). A indução e a manutenção dos calos são favoráveis ao aumento da atividade de elementos de transposição (ETs) os quais são muito freqüentes no genoma de cana e podem acarretar variabilidade no genoma vegetal pela alteração dos padrões e funções gênicas devido a essa mobilização, afrontando a fidelidade genética dos cultivares transgênicos obtidos. Baseando-se na importância de reduzir o período de cultura de tecidos e controlar a atividade dos ETs durante o desenvolvimento in vitro, o objetivo desse trabalho foi buscar alternativas no controle e na redução do tempo para regeneração de plantas, inclusive com a aplicação de peptídeos hormonais, assim como de transformar geneticamente as variedades RB835089 e RB835486 com o gene Ddm1 de Arabidopsis, visando o silenciamento dos elementos de transposição em cana-de-açúcar. Para isso, foram analisados os meios de cultura MS3c e ML1G1 e o efeito da água de coco na indução e formação de calos como também na regeneração de plantas. Foram testados os meios de regeneração de plantas MSAc, SRM, ML1R3 e ML1R4, obtendo-se em média 5,2 plantas por explante no meio MSAc, que foi superior aos demais meios. Este meio foi utilizado para testar o efeito individual dos peptídeos hormonais CLV3 e PSK- em calos embriogênicos, os quais apresentaram acréscimo na regeneração de plantas para 9,3 plantas por explantes com doses de 30 µM de PSK-a. A transformação genética por biolística através da cotransformação dos genes neo e AtDdm1 resultou em 34 plantas transgênicas. O estudo da mobilização dos ETs durante o desenvolvimento in vitro foi realizado para quatro retrotransposons. A expressão heteróloga do gene AtDdm1 em cana-de-açúcar mostrou atuar no controle da expressão do retroelemento TE010. O estudo da mobilização dos retrotransposons e do gene Ddm1 endógeno de cana (SsDdm1) durante o desenvolvimento in vitro confirmou que o gene SsDdm1 foi chave no controle da expressão dos retroelementos. A transformação genética com o gene AtDdm1 aliada a rápida regeneração de plantas a partir de discos foliares possibilitam condições que minimizam a expressão dos ETs em cana-de-açúcar. / Sugarcane is one of the major agro-industrial crops of Brazil being widely cultivated for the production of sugar and ethanol. This culture has become increasingly more important on the world stage each day due to the constant search for alternative and sustainable energy sources. In order to meet growing demand, it is necessary to often release new varieties, better adapted to cultivated expansion area and tolerant to environmental changes. Thus, the establishing of genetic transformation methodology beyond of contributing to the functional study of genes of interest and it is an alternative method for obtaining new varieties. The process of obtaining transgenic plants is dependent of an efficient protocol for in vitro plant regeneration, which generally involves a phase of undifferentiated cells (callus). The induction and maintenance of callus are favorable to increase the activity of transposable elements (TEs) which are very frequent in the genome of sugarcane and may cause variability in the plant genome by altering patterns and gene functions due to this mobilization, confronting the genetic fidelity of the transgenic cultivars obtained. Based on the importance of reducing the period of tissue culture and control the activity of TEs during in vitro development, the objective of this work was to seek alternatives to control and reduce the time for plant regeneration, including the use of peptides hormone, as well as to genetically transform sugarcane varieties RB835089 and RB835486 with the Ddm1 Arabidopsis gene to silence the transposable elements in cane sugar. For this, we tested the culture media MS3c and ML1G1and the effect of coconut water in callus induction and growth as well as on plant regeneration. We tested the plant regeneration media MSAc, SRM, ML1R3 and ML1R4, obtaining an average of 5.2 plants per explants using MSAC, superior to other medium tested. It was used to test the individual effect of peptides hormones such as CLV3 and PSK- in embryogenic callus, which showed an increase in plant regeneration to 9.3 plants per explant with doses of 30µM PSK-a. Genetic co-transformation with the neo and AtDdm1 genes by biolistic resulted in 34 transgenic plants. A study of TEs during in vitro development was performed for four retrotransposons. Heterologous expression of the AtDdm1 gene in sugarcane showed to control the expression of the retroelement TE010. The study of mobilization of retrotransposons and the endogenous Ddm1 gene (SsDdm1) during in vitro development confirmed that SsDdm1 was key gene in controlling the expression of retrotransposons. Genetic transformation with the AtDdm1 gene and the fast regeneration of plants provide positive conditions to minimize the expression of ETs in sugarcane.

Atualmente, o Huanglongbing (HLB), doença associada à bactéria Candidatus Liberibacter spp., é a principal ameaça dos Citrus, não tendo sido encontrado ainda espécies resistentes e tolerantes. O melhoramento genético tradicional apresenta limitações para a obtenção de novas variedades porta-enxerto e copa de citros em decorrência a fatores ligados à biologia do gênero. Na tentativa de sobrepor essas dificuldades, a transformação genética destaca-se por permitir a introdução de genes exógenos, os quais, além de reduzir o período de obtenção de material melhorado geneticamente, poderão conferir resistência a doenças em variedades de interesse agronômico. Desse modo, o objetivo desta pesquisa consistiu no estudo da organogênese in vitro, e na obtenção de plantas transgênicas via Agrobacterium tumefaciens das tangerinas \'Fremont\', \'Thomas\' e \'Nules\', com o gene que codifica o peptídeo antibacteriano atacina A (attA), controlado pelos promotores AtSUC2 e AtPP2, visando a expressão gênica preferencial nos vasos do floema. Adicionalmente, foi avaliada a transformação genética via A. tumefaciens de suspensões celulares de tangerina \'W-Murcott\', de laranja doce \'Hamlin\' e de tangelo \'Page\', e a transformação genética direta via PEG de protoplastos da tangerina \'W-Murcott\', com os fatores de transcrição VvmybA1 e Ruby, dirigidos pelos promotores com expressão preferencial nos tecidos embrionários 6105 e DC3. A eficiência da organogênese in vitro foi influenciada pelo tipo de explante e concentração de BAP. Após os experimentos de transformação genética de segmentos de epicótilo e internodal das tangerinas \'Fremont\', \'Thomas\' e \'Nules\', as plantas regeneradas foram analisadas por PCR, Southern blot e RT-qPCR e confirmadas como transgênicas pela presença e transcrição do gene attA no tecido vascular. A transformação genética de suspensões celulares mostrou-se eficiente com alta produção de antocianina nos embriões somáticos regenerados de tangerina \'W-Murcott\', de laranja doce \'Hamlin\' e de tangelo \'Page\'. A transformação genética direta de protoplastos de tangerina \'W-Murcott\' mostrou-se viável e também foi possível a obtenção de embriões somáticos transgênicos. Os fatores de transcrição VvmybA1 e Ruby se mostraram úteis para detecção visual do material transgênico / Currently, Huanglongbing (HLB), associated to Candidatus Liberibacter spp., is the main threat to the citrus culture. The conventional plant breeding shows limitations to the obtain new varieties of rootstock and scion, due to factors related to the biology of the genus. In attempt to overcome these barriers, genetic engineering is notable for allowing the introduction of foreign genes, which, besides reducing the time to obtain genetically improved material may confer disease resistance in varieties of agronomic interest. Thus, the objective of the research was the study of in vitro organogenesis, and obtain transgenic plants of \'Fremont\', \'Thomas\' and \'Nules\' mandarins via Agrobacterium tumefaciens with the gene encoding the antibacterial peptide attacin A (attA), controlled by the promoters AtSUC2 and AtPP2, aiming to preferential gene expression in phloem. In addition, the genetic transformation of cell suspensions, via A. tumefaciens, of \'W-Murcott\' mandarin, \'Hamlin\' sweet orange and \'Page\' tangelo and the direct genetic transformation, via PEG, of \'W-Murcott\' mandarin protoplasts were evaluated with VvmybA1 and Ruby transcription factors driven by 6105 and DC3 promoters, with preferential expression in embryonic tissues. The in vitro organogenesis of the varieties studied was influenced by the type of explant and BAP concentration. After genetic transformation experiments of epicotyl and internodal segments of \'Fremont\', \'Thomas\' and \'Nules mandarins, regenerated plants were analyzed by PCR, Southern blot and RT-qPCR and confirmed as transgenic by presence and transcription of attA gene. The genetic transformation of cell suspensions was efficient with high anthocyanin production in the somatic embryos regenerated of \'W-Murcott\' mandarin, \'Hamlin\' sweet orange and \'Page\' tangelo. The direct genetic transformation of \'W-Murcott\' mandarin protoplasts revealed to be viable and it was also possible to obtain transgenic somatic embryos. The VvmybA1 and Ruby transcription factors were useful tools for visual detection of transgenic material

O presente trabalho teve como principal objetivo obter plantas transgênicas, dos cultivares porta-enxerto limão \'Cravo\' e laranja azeda e de cultivares copa de laranja doce, expressando genes que possam influenciar no nível de resistência ao vírus da tristeza dos citros (CTV) e, possivelmente à morte súbita dos citros. Buscou-se ainda estudar a organogênese in vitro de espécies cítricas. Experimentos para a indução da organogênese in vitro foram realizados a partir de segmentos de epicótilos de plântulas germinadas in vitro de espécies cítricas avaliando-se: a resposta organogênica de três diferentes regiões do epicótilo, na presença (1,0 mg.L-1) ou ausência de BAP, em meio MT, e a regeneração em diferentes concentrações de BAP (0; 0,5; 1,0; 1,5 e 2,0 mg.L-1) adicionadas ao meio MT. Também avaliou-se a regeneração de segmentos internodais de limão ?Cravo? e laranja azeda em diferentes concentrações de BAP (0; 0,5; 1,0; 2,0 e 4,0 mg.L-1) em meio MT; e de laranja azeda em meio de cultura MT e DBA3, suplementados com diferentes concentrações de BAP (0; 1,0 e 2,0 mg.L-1) e ANA (0; 0,3 e 0,5 mg.L-1). Foi utilizado o método de transformação genética mediado por Agrobacterium tumefaciens utilizando-se tecido juvenil coletado de plantas cultivadas in vitro (segmentos de epicótilo) ou em casa de vegetação (segmentos internodais) como explantes. Utilizou-se a estirpe EHA105 de A. tumefaciens, contendo os plasmídeos: a) pCTV-CP: contendo o gene da capa protéica do CTV; b) pCTV-dsCP: contendo repetições invertidas do gene da capa protéica do CTV, interligadas pelo intron do gene da quitinase de citros; c) pCTVcons: contendo uma seqüência conservada antisense do CTV. As construções gênicas foram elaboradas a partir do plasmídeo pCAMBIA 2201, dirigidas pelo promotor 35S e o terminador NOS. Foram utilizados também os genes de seleção nptII e o repórter GUS. As gemas adventícias desenvolvidas foram identificadas como transgênicas pelo teste histoquímico GUS e por PCR e a confirmação da transformação genética foi feita por Southern Blot. A expressão da proteína do CTV foi verificada pelo teste serológico de PTA-ELISA. A resposta morfogênica em função da região do epicótilo e das concentrações da citocinina BAP é dependente do cultivar de citros. A suplementação do meio de cultura com a citocinina BAP proporcionou um maior número de gemas adventícias regeneradas por explante, tanto em segmentos de epicótilo como em segmentos internodais dos cultivares de citros estudados. A suplementação do meio de cultura com a citocinina BAP é essencial na regeneração de gemas adventícias em segmentos internodais de laranja azeda. Foi possível regenerar plantas transgênicas, pelo protocolo de transformação genética mediado por Agrobacterium tumefaciens de limão \'Cravo\' contendo o gene da capa protéica do vírus da tristeza dos citros (pCTV-CP) utilizando-se segmentos de epicótilo e segmentos internodais como fonte de explante, e com uma seqüência conservada antisense do CTV, utilizando-se segmentos internodias; e de laranja \'Hamlin\' contendo o gene da capa protéica do CTV, com as construções gênicas pCTV-dsCP e pCTV-CP, e com uma seqüência conservada antisense do CTV, utilizando-se segmentos de epicótilo como fonte de explante. / The objective of the present work was to obtain transgenic plants of rootstocks Rangpur lime and sour orange as well as sweet orange scion varieties, expressing genes that would possibly influence the levels of resistance to the Citrus tristeza virus (CTV) and Citrus sudden death disease. The in vitro organogenesis of Citrus species was also studied. In vitro organogenesis experiments were conducted with epicotyl segments obtained from in vitro germinated seedlings of different Citrus species in order to evaluate: organogenic response of three epicotyl regions, in the presence (1,0 mg.L-1) or absence of BAP, in MT medium, and the regeneration using different BAP concentrations (0; 0,5; 1,0; 1,5 e 2,0 mg.L-1) added to MT medium. The regeneration of internodal segments of Rangpur lime and sour orange was evaluated in MT medium with different BAP concentrations (0; 0,5; 1,0; 2,0 e 4,0 mg.L-1) as well as sour orange regeneration in MT and DBA3 mediums, supplemented with different concentrations of BAP (0; 1,0 e 2,0 mg.L-1) and NAA (0; 0,3 e 0,5 mg.L-1). The Agrobacterium tumefaciens Agrobacterium tumefaciens mediated genetic transformation method of juvenile tissue obtained from in vitro (epicotyls) or green house cultivated plants (internodal segments) was used in this work. The EHA 105 strain was used with the following plasmids: a) pCTV-CP: containing the coat protein gene from CTV; b) pCTV-dsCP: containing inverted repeats of the coat protein gene from CTV interconnected by the Citrus quitinase gene intron; c) pCTVcons: containing an antisense sequence of CTV untranslated region. The gene constructs were built from the pCAMBIA 2201 plasmid, and contained the 35S promoter and the NOS terminator. The nptII selection gene and the GUS reporter gene were also used. The adventitious buds developed were identified as transgenic by GUS histochemical test and PCR, these results were later confirmed by Southern Blot. The transgenic coat protein expression was detected by the serological test PTA-ELISA. The morphogenic response related to the epicotyl region and BAP cytokinin were dependent on the Citrus varieties. The addition of BAP cytokinin to the culture medium showed a greater number of adventitious buds regenerated per explant in both epicotyl and internodal segments of the Citrus varieties studied. The addition of BAP to the culture medium is essential for the regeneration of adventitious buds in sour orange internodal segments. Using the Agrobacterium mediated genetic transformation protocol it was possible to regenerate transgenic plants of different varieties and gene constructs: Rangpur lime containing the coat protein gene of CTV (pCTV-CP) using epicotyl and internodal segments as explant source, and an antisense sequence of CTV untranslated region using internodal segments as explant source; Hamlin sweet orange containing the coat protein gene of CTV in constructions pCTV-CP and pCTV-dsCP, and an antisense sequence of CTV untranslated region using epicotyl segments as explant source.

O presente trabalho teve como principal objetivo obter plantas transgênicas, dos cultivares porta-enxerto limão \'Cravo\' e laranja azeda e de cultivares copa de laranja doce, expressando genes que possam influenciar no nível de resistência ao vírus da tristeza dos citros (CTV) e, possivelmente à morte súbita dos citros. Buscou-se ainda estudar a organogênese in vitro de espécies cítricas. Experimentos para a indução da organogênese in vitro foram realizados a partir de segmentos de epicótilos de plântulas germinadas in vitro de espécies cítricas avaliando-se: a resposta organogênica de três diferentes regiões do epicótilo, na presença (1,0 mg.L-1) ou ausência de BAP, em meio MT, e a regeneração em diferentes concentrações de BAP (0; 0,5; 1,0; 1,5 e 2,0 mg.L-1) adicionadas ao meio MT. Também avaliou-se a regeneração de segmentos internodais de limão ?Cravo? e laranja azeda em diferentes concentrações de BAP (0; 0,5; 1,0; 2,0 e 4,0 mg.L-1) em meio MT; e de laranja azeda em meio de cultura MT e DBA3, suplementados com diferentes concentrações de BAP (0; 1,0 e 2,0 mg.L-1) e ANA (0; 0,3 e 0,5 mg.L-1). Foi utilizado o método de transformação genética mediado por Agrobacterium tumefaciens utilizando-se tecido juvenil coletado de plantas cultivadas in vitro (segmentos de epicótilo) ou em casa de vegetação (segmentos internodais) como explantes. Utilizou-se a estirpe EHA105 de A. tumefaciens, contendo os plasmídeos: a) pCTV-CP: contendo o gene da capa protéica do CTV; b) pCTV-dsCP: contendo repetições invertidas do gene da capa protéica do CTV, interligadas pelo intron do gene da quitinase de citros; c) pCTVcons: contendo uma seqüência conservada antisense do CTV. As construções gênicas foram elaboradas a partir do plasmídeo pCAMBIA 2201, dirigidas pelo promotor 35S e o terminador NOS. Foram utilizados também os genes de seleção nptII e o repórter GUS. As gemas adventícias desenvolvidas foram identificadas como transgênicas pelo teste histoquímico GUS e por PCR e a confirmação da transformação genética foi feita por Southern Blot. A expressão da proteína do CTV foi verificada pelo teste serológico de PTA-ELISA. A resposta morfogênica em função da região do epicótilo e das concentrações da citocinina BAP é dependente do cultivar de citros. A suplementação do meio de cultura com a citocinina BAP proporcionou um maior número de gemas adventícias regeneradas por explante, tanto em segmentos de epicótilo como em segmentos internodais dos cultivares de citros estudados. A suplementação do meio de cultura com a citocinina BAP é essencial na regeneração de gemas adventícias em segmentos internodais de laranja azeda. Foi possível regenerar plantas transgênicas, pelo protocolo de transformação genética mediado por Agrobacterium tumefaciens de limão \'Cravo\' contendo o gene da capa protéica do vírus da tristeza dos citros (pCTV-CP) utilizando-se segmentos de epicótilo e segmentos internodais como fonte de explante, e com uma seqüência conservada antisense do CTV, utilizando-se segmentos internodias; e de laranja \'Hamlin\' contendo o gene da capa protéica do CTV, com as construções gênicas pCTV-dsCP e pCTV-CP, e com uma seqüência conservada antisense do CTV, utilizando-se segmentos de epicótilo como fonte de explante. / The objective of the present work was to obtain transgenic plants of rootstocks Rangpur lime and sour orange as well as sweet orange scion varieties, expressing genes that would possibly influence the levels of resistance to the Citrus tristeza virus (CTV) and Citrus sudden death disease. The in vitro organogenesis of Citrus species was also studied. In vitro organogenesis experiments were conducted with epicotyl segments obtained from in vitro germinated seedlings of different Citrus species in order to evaluate: organogenic response of three epicotyl regions, in the presence (1,0 mg.L-1) or absence of BAP, in MT medium, and the regeneration using different BAP concentrations (0; 0,5; 1,0; 1,5 e 2,0 mg.L-1) added to MT medium. The regeneration of internodal segments of Rangpur lime and sour orange was evaluated in MT medium with different BAP concentrations (0; 0,5; 1,0; 2,0 e 4,0 mg.L-1) as well as sour orange regeneration in MT and DBA3 mediums, supplemented with different concentrations of BAP (0; 1,0 e 2,0 mg.L-1) and NAA (0; 0,3 e 0,5 mg.L-1). The Agrobacterium tumefaciens Agrobacterium tumefaciens mediated genetic transformation method of juvenile tissue obtained from in vitro (epicotyls) or green house cultivated plants (internodal segments) was used in this work. The EHA 105 strain was used with the following plasmids: a) pCTV-CP: containing the coat protein gene from CTV; b) pCTV-dsCP: containing inverted repeats of the coat protein gene from CTV interconnected by the Citrus quitinase gene intron; c) pCTVcons: containing an antisense sequence of CTV untranslated region. The gene constructs were built from the pCAMBIA 2201 plasmid, and contained the 35S promoter and the NOS terminator. The nptII selection gene and the GUS reporter gene were also used. The adventitious buds developed were identified as transgenic by GUS histochemical test and PCR, these results were later confirmed by Southern Blot. The transgenic coat protein expression was detected by the serological test PTA-ELISA. The morphogenic response related to the epicotyl region and BAP cytokinin were dependent on the Citrus varieties. The addition of BAP cytokinin to the culture medium showed a greater number of adventitious buds regenerated per explant in both epicotyl and internodal segments of the Citrus varieties studied. The addition of BAP to the culture medium is essential for the regeneration of adventitious buds in sour orange internodal segments. Using the Agrobacterium mediated genetic transformation protocol it was possible to regenerate transgenic plants of different varieties and gene constructs: Rangpur lime containing the coat protein gene of CTV (pCTV-CP) using epicotyl and internodal segments as explant source, and an antisense sequence of CTV untranslated region using internodal segments as explant source; Hamlin sweet orange containing the coat protein gene of CTV in constructions pCTV-CP and pCTV-dsCP, and an antisense sequence of CTV untranslated region using epicotyl segments as explant source.

Atualmente, o Huanglongbing (HLB), doença associada à bactéria Candidatus Liberibacter spp., é a principal ameaça dos Citrus, não tendo sido encontrado ainda espécies resistentes e tolerantes. O melhoramento genético tradicional apresenta limitações para a obtenção de novas variedades porta-enxerto e copa de citros em decorrência a fatores ligados à biologia do gênero. Na tentativa de sobrepor essas dificuldades, a transformação genética destaca-se por permitir a introdução de genes exógenos, os quais, além de reduzir o período de obtenção de material melhorado geneticamente, poderão conferir resistência a doenças em variedades de interesse agronômico. Desse modo, o objetivo desta pesquisa consistiu no estudo da organogênese in vitro, e na obtenção de plantas transgênicas via Agrobacterium tumefaciens das tangerinas \'Fremont\', \'Thomas\' e \'Nules\', com o gene que codifica o peptídeo antibacteriano atacina A (attA), controlado pelos promotores AtSUC2 e AtPP2, visando a expressão gênica preferencial nos vasos do floema. Adicionalmente, foi avaliada a transformação genética via A. tumefaciens de suspensões celulares de tangerina \'W-Murcott\', de laranja doce \'Hamlin\' e de tangelo \'Page\', e a transformação genética direta via PEG de protoplastos da tangerina \'W-Murcott\', com os fatores de transcrição VvmybA1 e Ruby, dirigidos pelos promotores com expressão preferencial nos tecidos embrionários 6105 e DC3. A eficiência da organogênese in vitro foi influenciada pelo tipo de explante e concentração de BAP. Após os experimentos de transformação genética de segmentos de epicótilo e internodal das tangerinas \'Fremont\', \'Thomas\' e \'Nules\', as plantas regeneradas foram analisadas por PCR, Southern blot e RT-qPCR e confirmadas como transgênicas pela presença e transcrição do gene attA no tecido vascular. A transformação genética de suspensões celulares mostrou-se eficiente com alta produção de antocianina nos embriões somáticos regenerados de tangerina \'W-Murcott\', de laranja doce \'Hamlin\' e de tangelo \'Page\'. A transformação genética direta de protoplastos de tangerina \'W-Murcott\' mostrou-se viável e também foi possível a obtenção de embriões somáticos transgênicos. Os fatores de transcrição VvmybA1 e Ruby se mostraram úteis para detecção visual do material transgênico / Currently, Huanglongbing (HLB), associated to Candidatus Liberibacter spp., is the main threat to the citrus culture. The conventional plant breeding shows limitations to the obtain new varieties of rootstock and scion, due to factors related to the biology of the genus. In attempt to overcome these barriers, genetic engineering is notable for allowing the introduction of foreign genes, which, besides reducing the time to obtain genetically improved material may confer disease resistance in varieties of agronomic interest. Thus, the objective of the research was the study of in vitro organogenesis, and obtain transgenic plants of \'Fremont\', \'Thomas\' and \'Nules\' mandarins via Agrobacterium tumefaciens with the gene encoding the antibacterial peptide attacin A (attA), controlled by the promoters AtSUC2 and AtPP2, aiming to preferential gene expression in phloem. In addition, the genetic transformation of cell suspensions, via A. tumefaciens, of \'W-Murcott\' mandarin, \'Hamlin\' sweet orange and \'Page\' tangelo and the direct genetic transformation, via PEG, of \'W-Murcott\' mandarin protoplasts were evaluated with VvmybA1 and Ruby transcription factors driven by 6105 and DC3 promoters, with preferential expression in embryonic tissues. The in vitro organogenesis of the varieties studied was influenced by the type of explant and BAP concentration. After genetic transformation experiments of epicotyl and internodal segments of \'Fremont\', \'Thomas\' and \'Nules mandarins, regenerated plants were analyzed by PCR, Southern blot and RT-qPCR and confirmed as transgenic by presence and transcription of attA gene. The genetic transformation of cell suspensions was efficient with high anthocyanin production in the somatic embryos regenerated of \'W-Murcott\' mandarin, \'Hamlin\' sweet orange and \'Page\' tangelo. The direct genetic transformation of \'W-Murcott\' mandarin protoplasts revealed to be viable and it was also possible to obtain transgenic somatic embryos. The VvmybA1 and Ruby transcription factors were useful tools for visual detection of transgenic material

Research into the micropropagation of black wattle in South Africa is important for two reasons. Firstly micropropagation technology allows breeders to select and propagate mature tissue, which in turn allows them to better capture selected traits. Secondly, tissue culture may control the highly invasive nature of black wattle. If triploid black wattle can be developed, foresters will then have to rely on clonal propagation to supply material for their growing operations. This research was part of the Institute for Commercial Forestry’s Acacia mearnsii vegetative propagation programme. The main focus of this research was to overcome various problems associated with direct organogenesis of ex vitro material. The shoot apex region was used as the explant in all studies because this region is thought to harbour relatively few internal microbial contaminants and is of sufficient size to withstand stresses associated with micropropagation. The initial research was focussed on the screening of sterilants, searching for a viable alternative to mercuric chloride. Surface sterilisation is integral to any micropropagation technique. This process should do the least amount of plant damage, whilst reducing microbial contamination to an acceptable level. Explants were cultured on Murashige and Skoog (MS) medium supplemented with 2.0 mg L-1 BA and monitored for signs of contamination and shooting. Household bleach proved an excellent alternative to mercuric chloride because it did significantly less damage to the explants than mercuric chloride and is handled easily. There was no significant effect of sterilant exposure time on explant decontamination levels, whilst the shortest exposure time resulted in significantly higher levels of shoot development than the other two times tested. The results of this initial research was developed into a protocol and utilised in subsequent investigations. Due to a considerable variation in the success of the developed surface sterilisation protocol according to different times of the year, a further investigation into the effects of season and mother plant material on shoot apex culture of Acacia mearnsii was undertaken. The success of any tissue culture technique depends on a large array of ex vitro and in vitro variables. The objective of this research was to determine the ii effect of two ex vitro variables, season and mother plant, on shoot apex culture of Acacia mearnsii. Explants from individual mother plants were cultured on MS medium supplemented with 2.0 mg L-1 BA during four separate seasons and monitored for signs of contamination and shooting. Spring was found to be the best harvesting season because spring explants showed significantly higher decontaminated explant levels and shooting levels than explants harvested in the other three seasons. The effect of mother plant selection on the performance of Acacia mearnsii explants during shoot apex culture was also found to be significant, especially with regard to shooting levels. Finally factors influencing shoot elongation of A. mearnsii during shoot apex culture were investigated. In the past, induction of shoot elongation during micropropagation of A. mearnsii was attained through the addition of plant growth regulators and other supplements to the basal culture medium. However, some micropropagation methods in other species have utilised red light as a means of promoting shoot elongation. The objective of this study was to test the effects of an alternative basal medium, red light and differing concentrations of chemical additions to the culture medium on shoot elongation of Acacia mearnsii during shoot apex culture. Four independent experiments were undertaken comparing: shoot elongation on Woody Plant Medium (WPM) to the MS basal medium control; shoot elongation under a red cellophane box compared to control culture light conditions; shoot elongation on media supplemented with various concentrations of GA3 to the un-supplemented control and shoot elongation on media supplemented with combinations of BA and IBA compared to a control. Although no significant effects were observed, many trends were noted. The results indicated that there was no advantage to using WPM instead of MS medium when attempting to elongate shoots, rejuvenated through shoot apex culture of A. mearnsii, whilst the effect of GA3 showed a negative trend. The effects of red light and some BA and IBA combinations showed positive trends on the elongation of initiated shoots. This research successfully addressed some of the problems associated with micropropagation of A. mearnsii. Shoot apex culture shows promise and further research into this technique should be considered. A viable surface sterilant alternative to mercuric chloride was successfully identified. This alternative is not only iii safer to use but shows a large reduction in phytotoxic effects. The effects of season and mother plant on shoot apex culture was successfully investigated, resulting in a better understanding of mother plant influences on tissue culture as well as the identification of an optimum season for explant selection. Finally two possible shoot elongation promoters were identified for further research and a more affordable alternative to red light sources and screens was identified. / Thesis (M.Sc.)-University of KwaZulu-Natal, Pietermaritzburg, 2007.

A cana-de-açúcar é uma das principais culturas agroindustriais do Brasil, sendo amplamente cultivada para a produção de açúcar e etanol. Esta cultura se torna a cada dia mais importante no cenário mundial, devido à busca constante por fontes de energia alternativas e mais sustentáveis. Para atender a crescente demanda, é necessária a liberação frequente de novas variedades, mais adaptadas às regiões de cultivo e tolerantes às alterações ambientais. Assim, o estabelecimento da metodologia de transformação genética além de contribuir para o estudo funcional de genes de interesse é uma metodologia alternativa para obtenção de novas variedades. O processo de obtenção de transgênicos é dependente de um eficiente protocolo de regeneração de plantas in vitro, que geralmente envolve uma fase de formação de células indiferenciadas (calos). A indução e a manutenção dos calos são favoráveis ao aumento da atividade de elementos de transposição (ETs) os quais são muito freqüentes no genoma de cana e podem acarretar variabilidade no genoma vegetal pela alteração dos padrões e funções gênicas devido a essa mobilização, afrontando a fidelidade genética dos cultivares transgênicos obtidos. Baseando-se na importância de reduzir o período de cultura de tecidos e controlar a atividade dos ETs durante o desenvolvimento in vitro, o objetivo desse trabalho foi buscar alternativas no controle e na redução do tempo para regeneração de plantas, inclusive com a aplicação de peptídeos hormonais, assim como de transformar geneticamente as variedades RB835089 e RB835486 com o gene Ddm1 de Arabidopsis, visando o silenciamento dos elementos de transposição em cana-de-açúcar. Para isso, foram analisados os meios de cultura MS3c e ML1G1 e o efeito da água de coco na indução e formação de calos como também na regeneração de plantas. Foram testados os meios de regeneração de plantas MSAc, SRM, ML1R3 e ML1R4, obtendo-se em média 5,2 plantas por explante no meio MSAc, que foi superior aos demais meios. Este meio foi utilizado para testar o efeito individual dos peptídeos hormonais CLV3 e PSK- em calos embriogênicos, os quais apresentaram acréscimo na regeneração de plantas para 9,3 plantas por explantes com doses de 30 µM de PSK-a. A transformação genética por biolística através da cotransformação dos genes neo e AtDdm1 resultou em 34 plantas transgênicas. O estudo da mobilização dos ETs durante o desenvolvimento in vitro foi realizado para quatro retrotransposons. A expressão heteróloga do gene AtDdm1 em cana-de-açúcar mostrou atuar no controle da expressão do retroelemento TE010. O estudo da mobilização dos retrotransposons e do gene Ddm1 endógeno de cana (SsDdm1) durante o desenvolvimento in vitro confirmou que o gene SsDdm1 foi chave no controle da expressão dos retroelementos. A transformação genética com o gene AtDdm1 aliada a rápida regeneração de plantas a partir de discos foliares possibilitam condições que minimizam a expressão dos ETs em cana-de-açúcar. / Sugarcane is one of the major agro-industrial crops of Brazil being widely cultivated for the production of sugar and ethanol. This culture has become increasingly more important on the world stage each day due to the constant search for alternative and sustainable energy sources. In order to meet growing demand, it is necessary to often release new varieties, better adapted to cultivated expansion area and tolerant to environmental changes. Thus, the establishing of genetic transformation methodology beyond of contributing to the functional study of genes of interest and it is an alternative method for obtaining new varieties. The process of obtaining transgenic plants is dependent of an efficient protocol for in vitro plant regeneration, which generally involves a phase of undifferentiated cells (callus). The induction and maintenance of callus are favorable to increase the activity of transposable elements (TEs) which are very frequent in the genome of sugarcane and may cause variability in the plant genome by altering patterns and gene functions due to this mobilization, confronting the genetic fidelity of the transgenic cultivars obtained. Based on the importance of reducing the period of tissue culture and control the activity of TEs during in vitro development, the objective of this work was to seek alternatives to control and reduce the time for plant regeneration, including the use of peptides hormone, as well as to genetically transform sugarcane varieties RB835089 and RB835486 with the Ddm1 Arabidopsis gene to silence the transposable elements in cane sugar. For this, we tested the culture media MS3c and ML1G1and the effect of coconut water in callus induction and growth as well as on plant regeneration. We tested the plant regeneration media MSAc, SRM, ML1R3 and ML1R4, obtaining an average of 5.2 plants per explants using MSAC, superior to other medium tested. It was used to test the individual effect of peptides hormones such as CLV3 and PSK- in embryogenic callus, which showed an increase in plant regeneration to 9.3 plants per explant with doses of 30µM PSK-a. Genetic co-transformation with the neo and AtDdm1 genes by biolistic resulted in 34 transgenic plants. A study of TEs during in vitro development was performed for four retrotransposons. Heterologous expression of the AtDdm1 gene in sugarcane showed to control the expression of the retroelement TE010. The study of mobilization of retrotransposons and the endogenous Ddm1 gene (SsDdm1) during in vitro development confirmed that SsDdm1 was key gene in controlling the expression of retrotransposons. Genetic transformation with the AtDdm1 gene and the fast regeneration of plants provide positive conditions to minimize the expression of ETs in sugarcane.

Le champ électrique d'une puissance suffisante peut provoquer une augmentation de conductivité et perméabilité de la membrane cellulaire. L'effet est connu comme l'électroporation, attribuée à la création de voies aqueuses dans la membrane. Quantifier le transport de la matière dans le cadre d'électroporation est un objectif important. Comprendre ces processus a des ramifications dans l’extraction du jus ou l’extraction sélective des composés de cellules végétales, l'amélioration de l'administration de médicaments, et des solutions aux défis environnementaux. Il y a un manque de modèles qui pourraient être utilisés pour modéliser le transport de la matière dans les structures complexes (tissus biologiques) par rapport à l'électroporation. Cette thèse présente une description mathématique théorique (un modèle) pour étudier le transport de la matière et le transfert de la chaleur dans tissu traité par l’électroporation. Le modèle a été développé en utilisant les lois de conservation et de transport et permet le couplage des effets de l'électroporation sur la membrane des cellules individuelles au transport de la matière ou la chaleur dans le tissu. Une solution analytique a été trouvée par une simplification, mais le modèle peut être étendu avec des dépendances fonctionnelles supplémentaires et résolu numériquement. La thèse comprend cinq articles sur l'électroporation dans l'industrie alimentaire, la création de modèle pour le problème de diffusion, la traduction du modèle au problème lié à l’expression de jus, validation du modèle, ainsi que des suggestions pour une élaboration future du modèle. Un chapitre supplémentaire est dédié au transfert de la chaleur dans tissu. / An electric field of sufficient strength can cause an increase of conductivity and permeability of cell membrane. Effect is known as electroporation and is attributed to creation of aqueous pathways in the membrane. Quantifying mass transport in connection with electroporation of biological tissues is an important goal. The ability to fully comprehend transport processes has ramifications in improved juice extraction and improved selective extraction of compounds from plant cells, improved drug delivery, and solutions to environmental challenges. While electroporation is intensively investigated, there is a lack of models that can be used to model mass transport in complex structures such as biological tissues with relation to electroporation. This thesis presents an attempt at constructing a theoretical mathematical description – a model, for studying mass (and heat) transfer in electroporated tissue. The model was developed employing conservation and transport laws and enables coupling effects of electroporation to the membrane of individual cells with the resulting mass transport or heat transfer in tissue. An analytical solution has been found though the model can be extended with additional dependencies to account for the phenomenon of electroporation, and solved numerically. Thesis comprises five peer-reviewed papers describing electroporation in the food industry, model creation for the problem of diffusion, translation of the model to the mathematically-related case of juice expression, model validation, as well as suggestions for possible future development, extension, and generalization. An additional chapter is dedicated to transfer of heat in tissue.