Widefield surface plasmon resonance (WSPR) microscopy provides high resolution imaging of interfacial interactions. We report the application of the WSPR imaging system in the study of the interaction between keratinocytes and liquid crystals (LC). Imaging of fixed keratinocytes cultured on gold coated surface plasmon substrates functionalized with a thin film of liquid crystals was performed in air using a 1.45NA objective based system. Focal adhesion of the cells adhered to glass and LC were further studied using immunofluorescence staining of the vinculin. The imaging system was also simulated with 2x2 scattering matrix to investigate the optical reflection of the resonant plasmonic wave via the glass/gold/cell and glass/gold/LC/cell layers. WSPR imaging indicated that keratinocytes are less spread and formed distinct topography of cell-liquid crystal couplings when cultured on liquid crystal coated substrates. The simulation indicates that glass/LC shifted the surface plasmon excitation angle to 75.39 degrees as compared to glass/air interface at 44 degrees . The WSPR microcopy reveals that the cells remodelled their topography of adhesion at different interfaces.

En raison de leur avantage en sensibilité de surface, un grand choix de biocapteurs SPR (résonance de plasmons desurface) est disponible sur le marché tant pour la recherche scientifique que pour le médical personnalisé. Lesapplications à l'imagerie SPR sont généralement basées sur la méthode du prisme de couplage et une miniaturisation enbiopuces avec parallélisme matriciel. Ces développements se heurtent à des inconvénients de par leurs limites enrésolution spatiale et le caractère non-uniforme des régions détectées. Si plusieurs microscopes à très haute résolutionsont en cours de développement, les systèmes restent généralement complexes et onéreux.Dans cette thèse, nous avons adopté la méthode SPR pour concevoir et construire un nouveau système d'imagerie.Outre le signal de fluorescence, les phénomènes d’absorption SPR peuvent être utilisés pour imager et mieuxcomprendre les propriétés de surfaces. Dans ce but, nous avons réalisé un microscope à plasmon de surface à deuxcanaux et à polarisation radiale pouvant détecter des nanoparticules isolées. Dans le cas de nanosphères avec moléculesfluorescentes, nous avons démontré la possibilité de collecter simultanément les images de fluorescence et de diffusionélastique. Ces deux signaux complémentaires conduisent à des images bien co-localisées. Une meilleure résolution etune amélioration de la sensibilité ont été rendues possibles en utilisant un polariseur radial et un objectif à ouverturenumérique élevée, qui permettent de polariser en configuration TM l'ensemble du faisceau incident, conduisant à laformation d'un anneau circulaire sombre dans l'image réfléchie. Le signal de fluorescence est clairement amplifié deplus de 50% sous polarisation radiale par rapport à un polarisation linéaire, la polarization azimuthale, à caractèrecomplètement TE ne permettant pas le couplage aux plasmons et servant de référence neutre.Nous avons tout d’abord appliqué cette technique à la détection de nanosphères fluorescentes isolées (de 20 nm dediamètre), ce qui est susceptible de révéler des informations inaccessibles aux mesures classiques sur film épais. Enoutre, cette technique se révèle être également un moyen de compenser les intermittences par clignotementcaractéristiques de la fluorescence, lesquelles n'affectent pas le canal de diffusion élastique. Nous avons enfin étenducette technique aux objets biologiques tels que des brins d'ADN et des membranes cellulaires en milieu liquide. Cettetechnique a également été étendue à l'étude de signaux de fluorescence à deux photons (TPF) émis par des nanosphèresà base d’organo-métalliques, ainsi qu’à celle de signaux de génération de seconde harmonique (SHG) en provenance denanocristaux non-centrosymétriques. Les effets de renforcement de la fluorescence par l’effet d’un ion métalliqueainsi que les phénomènes d'extinction par des boîtes quantiques sont des sujets d’investigation fondamentale associés àces axes. / Due to the advantage of surface sensitivity, various SPR biosensors for scientific research fields or personalmedicine markets have been reported. However, especially for SPR imaging applications, the designs are usually basedon prism-coupling method and ensuing chips with array patterns. In fact, these designs entail the disadvantages of alimited spatial resolution and non uniform detection regions. Although several super-resolution microscopes have beenproposed and developed, systems are usually complicated and high-costs. In our thesis, we adopt the surface plasmonresonance technique to build a brand new imaging system. Alongside fluorescence, SPR absorption can be also beexploited towards better imaging and understanding of the surface properties.Towards this aim, we demonstrate a dual-channel radially-polarized surface plasmon microscopy (SPM) systemwith capability down to single nanoparticle detection. For nanospheres stained with fluorescent molecules, we are ableto simultaneously collect the fluorescence and elastic scattering images, these two complementary emitted signalsleading to well co-localized images. The improved resolution and higher sensitivity of our system are enabled by use ofa radial polarizer and a high numerical aperture objective, which provide TM-polarization status to the entire incidentbeam, which results in the formation of a dark circular ring in the reflected image. The fluorescence intensity is thenclearly enhanced by more than 50% under radial polarization as compared to a linear one, while azimuthal polarizationbeing fully TE is ineffective and serves as a reference.We first applied this technique to detect a single fluorescent sphere of 20 nm in diameter, which potentiallyreveals unique information as compared to other measurements on bulk films. Moreover, it also provides a way tocompensate for the blinking characteristic of the fluorescence, which does not affect the elastic scattering channel. Weare currently extending this technique to stained biological objects such as DNA strands and cell membranes in liquidenvironments. This technique has been extended to study two photon fluorescence (TPF) signals from organometallic nanospheres, as well as second harmonic generation (SHG) signals from non-centrosymmetric nanocrystals via a multiphoton confocal microscope. In relation with this research, metallic ion enhanced fluorescence and quenching effects from quantum dots are fundamental topics currently under investigation.

Plasmonics techniques, such as surface plasmon resonance (SPR) and surface-enhanced Raman scattering (SERS), have been widely used for chemical and biochemical sensing applications. One approach to excite surface plasmons is through the coupling of light into metallic grating nanostructures. Those grating nanostructures can be fabricated using state-of-the-art nanofabrication methods. Laser interference lithography (LIL) is one of those methods that allow the rapid fabrication of nanostructures with a high-throughput. In this thesis, LIL was combined with other microfabrication techniques, such as photolithography and template stripping, to fabricate different types of plasmonic sensors. Firstly, template stripping was applied to transfer LIL-fabricated patterns of one-dimensional nanogratings onto planar supports (e.g., glass slides and plane-cut optical fiber tips). A thin adhesive layer of epoxy resin was used to facilitate the transfer. The UV-Vis spectroscopic response of the nanogratings supported on glass slides demonstrated a strong dependency on the polarization of the incident light. The bulk refractive index sensitivities of the glass-supported nanogratings were dependent on the type of metal (Ag or Au) and the thickness of the metal film. The described methodology provided an efficient low-cost fabrication alternative to produce metallic nanostructures for plasmonic chemical sensing applications. Secondly, we demonstrated a versatile procedure (LIL either alone or combined with traditional laser photolithography) to prepare both large area (i.e. one inch2) and microarrays (μarrays) of metallic gratings structures capable of supporting SPR excitation (and SERS). The fabrication procedure was simple, high-throughput, and reproducible, with less than 5 % array-to-array variations in geometrical properties. The nanostructured gold μarrays were integrated on a chip for SERS detection of ppm-level of 8-quinolinol, an emerging water-borne pharmaceutical contaminant. Lastly, the LIL-fabricated large area nanogratings have been applied for SERS detection of the mixtures of quinolone antibiotics, enrofloxacin, an approved veterinary antibiotic, and one of its active metabolite, ciprofloxacin. The quantification of these analytes (enrofloxacin and ciprofloxacin) in aqueous mixtures were achieved by employing chemometric analysis. The limit of quantification of the method described in this work is in the ppm-level, with <10 % SERS spatial variation. Isotope-edited internal calibration method was attempted to improve the accuracy and reproducibility of the SERS methodology. / Graduate / 2018-02-17

La leishmaniose est causée par un parasite protozoaire du genre Leishmania. Cette maladie infecte environ 12 millions de personnes dans le monde et en menace 350 millions dans 98 pays. Il existe trois formes majeures de leishmaniose : cutanée, mucocutanée et viscérale. L'infection se produit par le dépôt des parasites sous forme de promastigotes dans la peau de l'hôte mammifère via la piqûre d’un phlébotome. Les parasites peuvent migrer au sein de la matrice extracellulaire avant d’infecter les macrophages. Bien que la plupart des études réalisées jusqu’ici aient été consacrées aux interactions des parasites Leishmania avec leurs cellules cibles, quelques interactants extracellulaires ont déjà été identifiés. Dans cette étude, nous avons étudié pour la première fois le répertoire d’interactions de 24 souches de promastigotes intacts, vivants (6 espèces aux différents tropismes) avec environ ~70 biomolécules de la matrice extracellulaire de l’hôte à l’échelle moléculaire en utilisant des puces à protéines et à glycosaminoglycanes et la résonance plasmonique de surface en mode imagerie. Nous avons identifié 27 nouveaux partenaires (23 protéines et 4 glycosaminoglycanes) des promastigotes de Leishmania. Les souches partagent des partenaires communs tels que le plasminogène, TEM-8 et la tropoélastine, qui est dégradée in vitro par la majorité des souches. Les Leishmania se lient à plusieurs régulateurs de l’angiogenèse et à des glycosaminoglycanes. Dans une seconde partie, nous avons cloné deux protéines de L. major, l’énolase et la superoxyde dismutase, toutes deux identifiées dans le sécrétome de Leishmania, afin d’étudier leur répertoire d’interactions. L’énolase possède un répertoire d’interactions (13 partenaires) supérieur à celui de la superoxyde dismutase (6 partenaires) mais toutes deux interagissent également avec le plasminogène, l’ectodomaine de TEM-8, l’endostatine et l’héparine. Enfin, dans une troisième partie, nous avons créé une base de données, LeishMatrixDB, qui recense toutes les interactions des parasites Leishmania, ou leurs molécules, avec les composants de la matrice extracellulaire de l’hôte décrites dans la littérature / Leishmaniasis is a vector-borne disease caused by parasitic protozoa of the genus Leishmania. 12 million people are presently infected worldwide and the disease threatens 350 million people in 98 countries around the world. There are three main types of the disease: cutaneous, mucocutaneous and visceral. Infection occurs by the deposition of promastigote form into the mammalian skin via the bite of phlebotomine sandflies within the extracellular matrix proteins prior infecting macrophages. Most studies have focused on the interaction of Leishmania promastigotes with their cellular targets, some extracellular partners have been identified. In this study, we investigated for the first time the interplay between 24 strains of intact, live, parasites (6 species of different tropisms) and ~70 biomolecules of the host extracellular matrix at the molecular level using protein and glycosaminoglycan arrays probed by surface plasmon resonance imaging. We have identified 27 new partners (23 proteins and 4 glycosaminoglycans) of Leishmania promastigotes. All strains tested shared 3 common partners such as plasminogen, TEM-8 and tropoelastin, which is degraded in vitro by most Leishmania tested. Leishmania bound to several regulators of angiogenesis and to glycosaminoglycans. In a second part, we cloned two L. major proteins, enolase and superoxyde dismutase, both identified in Leishmania secretome in order to study their interaction repertoire. Enolase had a larger interaction repertoire (13 partners) than superoxide dismutase (6 partners) but both bound to plasminogen, ectodomain of TEM-8, endostatin and heparin. In a third part, we have created a database, LeishMatrixDB, which lists all the interactions of Leishmania, or their molecules, with host extracellular components from the literature

Dépistage du VIH, test de grossesse, mais également surveillance des eaux, détection de contaminants agro-alimentaires : la biodétection est au coeur des problématiques de santé actuelles. Dans ce contexte, les biocapteurs plasmoniques connaissent depuis quelques années un essor particulièrement important : de plus en plus de sociétés, telles que HORIBA Scientific, proposent des prototypes commerciaux, destinés tant à des utilisateurs du domaine de la recherche que de l'industrie. Basée sur le phénomène de résonance des plasmons de surface (communément appelé SPR) la biodétection plasmonique repose sur l'extrême sensibilité d’une onde évanescente se propageant à l’interface entre un film d’or, la biopuce, et le milieu diélectrique couvrant, siège des interactions biomoléculaires étudiées. De manière plus concrète, toute adsorption de matériel biologique se produisant à cette interface entraîne une modification importante des propriétés optiques d’un faisceau de lumière réfléchi par la biopuce : le principe de transduction par SPR consiste alors à mesurer directement ces variations. A l'heure actuelle, différents modes d'interrogation, offrant des performances intéressantes, mais également des limitations propres à chaque configuration. Pour répondre aux exigences de précision et de dynamique de mesure posées par de nombreuses applications, un développement théorique et instrumental, présenté dans ce document, a été initié dans le but de proposer un nouveau un nouveau mode d'interrogation des biopuces plasmoniques : l'interrogation multi-spectrale. Les résultats obtenus par cette technique ont été exploités pour concevoir et réaliser une source multi-spectrale à base de LEDs, particulièrement avantageuse vis-à-vis des configurations existant à l'heure actuelle. La caractérisation du système développé dans le cadre du diagnostic génétique (mucoviscidose) et celui du cancer, ouvre la voie à une nouvelle génération de biocapteurs performants, compacts et de coût relativement raisonnable, présentant un potentiel industriel certain. / Biodetection is at the core of the current health concerns, as shown through the variety of applications to HIV screening, food contaminant analysis or water quality monitoring. In this field, plasmonic biosensing is a well-established label-free technique on the market: commercial systems from HORIBA Scientific are currently available for both research and industrial users.Based on the surface plasmon resonance (SPR) phenomenon, plasmonic biodetection uses the high sensitivity of an evanescent wave propagating along a metallic film (forming the biochip) and the surrounding dielectric medium interface. More specifically, the adsorption of biomolecules onto the metal surface induces a strong change in the optical properties of a light beam reflected by the biochip: the main principle of plasmonic transduction consists in measuring these physical changes. Several interrogation techniques have therefore been developed to access such optical information, but they fail in meeting the most demanding user requirements for precise, real-time, high-throughput measurement.Initiated by these issues, the instrumentation work presented in this document has led to the development of a novel SPR interrogation technique, referred to as multi-spectral interrogation. Moreover, the promising results obtained have been pushed forward to propose a multi-spectral illumination system based on LEDs, providing attractive performances compared to existing configurations. The biosensing potential of the developed system, demonstrated through applications to genetic diagnosis and cancer detection, opens the door to a new generation of compact, high-performance, low-cost SPR sensors.

Breeding for abiotic stress tolerance is one of main topics in plant breeding. Oilseed rape breeding programs were for a long time focused on morphological and physiological parameters. In this thesis few experiments focused on identification of genes involved in abiotic stress reaction were performed using RT-qPCR (quantitative reverse transcription PCR). Simultaneously SPR (surface plasmon resonance) method were used as modern optical method facilitating very low native protein concentration even in presence of other substances. This method facilitates quantification of concrete proteins by binding them to specific antigen and in oilseed rape research it was not used by now. ERD10 protein was identified by SPR as protein involved in cold stress reaction (or acclimation). The results show ERD10 accumulation in standard conditions affects dynamics of its accumulation change during cold stress. In case we are searching for genotypes great in acclimation ability even during short and warm autumn SPR method should be suitable method for fast, easy and relatively cheap screening of large number of genotypes in breeding collections. Also genes LTI78, RCI2A, NRP1 and two genes for hypothetical proteins were analysed. Their relative expression during cold stress was markedly increased too. Very little is known about these genes and proteins nowadays therefor it will be interesting topic of our oncoming experiment. Relative expression of genes picked according to MALDI-TOF/TOF analysis results was also tested in microspore embryo regenerants stressed by simulated drought. Genes for lactoylglutathione lyase I, phospholipase D 1 and peroxiredoxin antioxidase were tested. In tolerant cultivar was markedly decreased gene expression of peroxiredoxin antioxidase in standard conditions and early stress. These gene will be subject for next research as potential marker for more tolerant genotypes selection.

A luminescência opticamente estimulada (OSL) é a luminescência emitida por um material, isolante ou semicondutor, durante exposição à luz e que foi previamente exposto à radiação ionizante. Portanto, depende da quantidade de cargas armadilhadas na estrutura do material, o que por sua vez depende da dose de radiação absorvida pela amostra. Dessa forma, a busca por novos materiais para serem utilizados como detectores de radiação envolve a criação de defeitos que atuem como armadilhas e/ou centros luminescentes. Recentemente, as interações entre os plásmons de nanopartículas metálicas e centros luminescentes têm sido utilizadas para aumentar a intensidade luminescente emitida por diversos materiais. Nesse trabalho, foi investigada a possibilidade de aplicação das propriedades plasmônicas de nanoestruturas de prata e ouro, no aumento da emissão OSL. Para isso, foram testados como dosímetros OSL, compósitos de cloreto de sódio contendo nano e micropartículas de prata; compósitos de óxido de zinco contendo nanopartículas de ouro e prata; e amostras de cloreto de sódio depositado sobre filmes de nanopartículas de prata e ouro. As amostras foram caracterizadas por diversas técnicas como espectroscopia UV-Vis, espalhamento dinâmico de luz, espectroscopia na região do infravermelho, espectroscopia de fotoluminescência, microscopia eletrônica de transmissão, microscopia de força atômica, entre outras. Foi possível verificar que a intensificação dos campos elétricos locais em torno de nanopartículas metálicas em condições de ressonância plasmônica aumenta a taxa de desarmadilhamento de elétrons durante a estimulação OSL. O acoplamento plasmônico causou aumento das taxas de decaimento radiativo e redução das taxas de decaimento não radiativo, produzindo aumento da intensidade OSL. Além disso, as interações entre as armadilhas/centros luminescentes e os plásmons variam de acordo com a distância entre as partes, e a maior intensidade OSL foi obtida para amostras em que houve um espaçamento de aproximadamente 15 nm entre o NaCl o filme de nanopartículas de prata. Portanto, é possível utilizar as propriedades plasmônicas de nanoestruturas metálicas para aumentar a intensidade da luminescência opticamente estimulada, dando origem a novos e mais sensíveis detectores e dosímetros das radiações ionizantes. / Optically stimulated luminescence (OSL) is a well-known light emission process involving light stimulation of an insulator/semi-conductor material previously exposed to ionizing radiation. The intensity of the emitted light is proportional to the ionizing radiation dose previously absorbed by the material. Developing appropriate OSL materials for radiation detection and dosimetry is based on the doping and co-doping of a host material to create defects that can act as traps and/or luminescent centers. In this context, plasmon interaction with luminescent centers from OSL materials could be a new, different, and unexplored method to achieve enhanced OSL intensity and consequently improve their sensitivity as radiation detectors. In this study, we investigated whether it is possible to use the plasmonic properties of noble metal nanoparticles to obtain plasmon-enhanced OSL. To this end, we produced samples of NaCl containing nano and microparticles; composites of ZnO containing silver and gold nanoparticles; as well as samples of NaCl deposited over films of gold and silver nanoparticles. Each sample has been tested as a radiation detector by means of optically stimulated luminescence, in addition to having their materials properties analyzed by UV-Vis absorption spectroscopy, dynamic light scattering, transmission electron microscopy (TEM), atomic force microscopy, and Fourier Transform Infrared spectroscopy (FTIR). We discovered that the electric field intensification around nanoparticles under plasmon resonance conditions enhances the excitation rate of trapped electrons. The plasmon coupling during the emission process increases the radiative and diminishes the non-radiative decay rates, leading to enhanced OSL intensities. Furthermore, the interaction between traps/luminescent centers and plasmons is highly dependent on the distance between them, and the maximum OSL intensity was observed for samples with 15 nm spacing between the NaCl and the silver nanoparticle films. Therefore, it is possible to use the plasmon properties of metal nanostructures to increase OSL, giving rise to new and more sensitive ionizing radiation detectors and dosimeters.

Neste trabalho estão apresentadas novas estratégias para funcionalizar superfícies de ouro baseadas na sustentação de bicamadas lipídicas em superfícies de sensores de imagem por Ressonância de Plasmons de Superfície (SPRi) e a construção de um biosensor para detecção de citocromo c. SPRi é uma técnica ótica de gravimetria em tempo real. Por meio de medidas de variações de índice de refração (n) próximas a uma interface, a adsorção e desorção de moléculas podem ser mensuradas. Inicialmente testamos várias estratégias para encontrar um suporte adequado que se ligasse na superfície de ouro e que oferecesse sustentação e estabilidade para a bicamada de fosfolipídeo biotinilado. Estudos de FT-IR e MEV mostraram que a quitosana facilita a formação de uma bicamada íntegra de fosfolipídeos, de tal modo, que a mesma alcança valores de espessura próximos àqueles previstos, ~ 34,5 Å. Além disso, mostramos que esse sistema apresenta vantagens perante outros modelos, tais como, (poli-lisina/fosfolipídeos) e (tiol hidrofóbico/fosfolipídeo). Utilizando-se o complexo químico biotina/estreptoavidina conseguimos imobilizar o anticorpo anti cit c na bicamada, mantendo-o afastado da superfície de ouro. A construção do biosensor foi acompanhada com experimentos de SPRi. O limite de detecção de citocromo c atingido foi de 10-11mol/L. Um sensor construído somente com BSA e anticorpo anti cit c apresentou sensibilidade semelhante. Esta sensibilidade é em torno de três ordens de grandeza superior aos experimentos de imunoblotting usualmente utilizados para detecção de cit c. A principal limitação deste biosensor, tal como de outros imunoensaios, está intimamente ligada às vantagens e desvantagens dos anticorpos como ferramentas analíticas. / In this work we developed new strategies to functionalize gold surfaces based on the support of lipid bilayers on the surfaces of surface plasmon resonance imaging sensors (SPRi) and the construction of a biosensor for detection of cytochrome c. SPRi is an optical gravimetric real time technique. Through measurements of changes in refractive index (n) in close proximity to an interface, the adsorption and desorption of molecules can be measured. Initially we tested several strategies for finding a suitable medium that would adsorb on the gold surface and also support and stabilize a biotinylated phospholipid bilayer. Studies of FT-IR and SEM showed that chitosan induces the formation of an intact phospholipid bilayer, so that it reaches thickness values close to those expected, ~ 34.5 Å. Furthermore, we showed that this system has advantages in relation to other models, such as (poli-lisine/phospholipids) and (thiol hydrophobic / phospholipid). Using the chemical complex biotin/streptavidin anti cyt c antibody could be immobilized in the bilayer, keeping it away from the gold surface. The construction of the biosensor was accompanied with SPRi experiments. The limit of detection of cytochrome c was achieved from 10-11mol / L. A sensor built only with BSA and anti cyt c showed similar sensitivity. This sensitivity is about three orders of magnitude higher than the immunoblotting experiments commonly used for detection of cyt c. The main limitation of this biosensor, like in other immunoassays, is linked to the advantages and disadvantages of antibodies as analytical tools.

Nanoscale lithography is the key component of the semiconductor device fabrication process. For the sub-10 nm node device, the conventional deep ultraviolet (DUV) photolithography approach is limited by the diffraction nature of light even with the help of double or multiple patterning. The upcoming extreme ultraviolet (EUV) photolithography can overcome this resolution limit by using very short wavelength (13.5nm) light. Because of the prohibitive cost of the tool and the photomask, the EUV lithography is only suitable for high volume manufacturing of high value. Several alternative lithography technologies are proposed to address the cost issue of EUV such as directed self-assembly (DSA), nanoimprint lithography (NIL), scanning probe lithography, maskless plasmonic photolithography, optical maskless lithography, multiple electron-beam lithography, etc.<div><br></div><div>Electron-beam lithography (EBL) utilizes a focused electron beam to write patterns dot by dot on the silicon wafer. The beam size can be sub-nanometers and the resolution is limited by the resist not the beam size. However, the major drawback of EBL is its low throughput. The throughput can be increased by using large current but at the cost of large beam size. This is because the interaction between electrons in the pathway of the electron beam. To address the trade-off between resolution and throughput of EBL, the multiple electron-beam lithography was proposed to use an array of electron-beams. Each beam has a not very large beam current to maintain good resolution but the total current can be very high to improve the throughput. One of the major challenges is how to create a uniform array of electron beamlets with large brightness.<br></div><div><br></div><div>This dissertation shows a novel low-cost high-throughput multiple electron-beam lithography approach that uses plasmonic enhanced photoemission beamlets as the electron beam source. This technology uses a novel device to excite and focus surface electromagnetic and electron waves to generate millions of parallel electron beamlets from photoemission. The device consists of an array of plasmonic lenses which generate electrons and electrostatic micro-lenses which guide the electrons and focus them into beams. Each of the electron beamlets can be independently controlled. During lithography, a fast spatial optical modulator will dynamically project light onto the plasmonic lenses individually to control the switching and brightness of electron beamlets without the need of a complicated beamlet-blanking array and addressable circuits. The incident photons are first converted into surface electromagnetic and electron waves by plasmonic lens and then concentrated into a diffraction-unlimited spot to excite the local electrons above their vacuum levels. Meanwhile, the electrostatic micro-lens will extract the excited electrons to form a finely focused beamlet, which can be rastered across a wafer to perform lithography. The scalable plasmonic enhanced photoemission electron-beam sources are designed and fabricated. An array of micro-scale electrostatic electron lenses are designed and fabricated using typical micro-electro-mechanical system (MEMS) fabrication method. The working distance (WD) defined as the gap from the electron lens to the underneath silicon wafer is regulated using a gap control system. A vacuum system is designed and constructed to host the multiple electron-beam system. Using this demo system, the resolution of the electron beams is confirmed to be better than 30 nm from the lithography results done on poly methyl methacrylate (PMMA) and hydrogen silsesquioxane (HSQ) resists. According to simulation results, the electron beam spot size can be further optimized to be better than 10 nm.<br></div><div><br></div><div>This scheme of high-throughput electron-beam lithography with multiple plasmonic enhanced photoemission beamlets has the potential to be an alternative approach for the sub-10 nm node lithography. Because of its maskless nature, it is cost effective and especially suitable for low volume manufacturing and prototype demonstration.<br></div><div><br></div><div><br></div>

This thesis covers different topics in the field of synthetic organic chemistry combined with the field of surface science and glycobiology. First, the text presents a series of orthogonally protected oligosaccharides (tri-, penta-, and heptasaccharides) of varying length and structures, which are synthesized with the aim of developing novel heterobifunctional biocompatible cross-linkers. Successful conjugation with different chemical handles is also described and used to illustrate the potential implementation of defined carbohydrate based compounds have potential use in biosensing applications. The results of incubation experiments using living cells indicate that the linker is incorporated into cell surfaces and enriched in microdomains. Second, synthesis of various saccharide-terminated alkane thiols immobilized on gold surfaces is reported. The protein adsorption and antifouling characteristics of these surfaces were investigated using model proteins and the common fouling organisms, Ulva linza and Balanus amphitrite. Further, oligo(lactose)-based thiols (di-, tetra-, and hexasaccharides) were synthesized and immobilized on gold nanoparticles to investigate how well these rigid, rod-like oligosaccharides can stabilize such nanoparticles for future use in constructing hybrid nanoparticles. Finally, the thesis describes synthesis of a systematic series of oligo(ethylene) glycols possessing either hydrogen- or methyl-terminated groups. Investigation of the fundamental characteristics of self-assembled monolayers, will give important insights into the design of protein repellant surfaces.