Pride is elicited when a child takes credit for an achievement or exceeds a socially valued standard or expectation. Evidence suggests that pride has a distinct nonverbal expression that is recognized by adults across cultures (Tracy & Robins, 2004). Research examining when children recognize pride has yielded age discrepancies between studies that use forced-choice response formats and those that use spontaneous-response formats. Differences in children's ability to use and comprehend language may account for some of these differences. The purpose of this thesis was to examine the age at which children reliably recognize pride, while minimizing the need for children to rely on their linguistic or verbal abilities. The present experiment used an experimental approach to examine when children reliably recognize pride. One hundred forty-four children between the ages of 2.5- and 6.5-years participated in one of three experimental conditions: Exceed Standard, Fail Standard or No Standard. Frequency of pride recognition in the Exceed Standard condition was compared to frequencies of pride recognition in the Fail Standard and No Standard conditions. Results revealed a developmental progression of pride recognition in which children first begin showing nonverbal pride behaviors at about 2.5- to 3.5-years, acquire the ability to apply a label to the nonverbal pride expression between 3.5- and 4.5-years of age, and come to recognize their own emotional experience as pride in an achievement situation between 4.5- and 5.5-years of age.

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This essay applies a feminist neo-Marxist perspective to analyze the intricate parts of society in Jane Austen’s Pride and Prejudice. The essay performs an analysis of societal norms and the influence the economy has on individuals with a focus on the character Charlotte Lucas by applying feminist and Marxist frameworks to the character and her choices. The analysis explores how Regency patriarchy influences the lives and choices of individuals such as Charlotte, who has to make decisions within societal constraints in pursuit of a stable future. An introduction to feminist neo-Marxism is made to establish a theoretical understanding of the gender roles and power dynamics in the novel. Interactions between gender expectations, economic factors, and class are highlighted. Regency societal norms and economic pressures are especially analyzed to contextualize Charlotte’s choices. This essay offers insight into the character’s motivations while highlighting what in the way society functions drives them to make the decisions they do, especially as women.

Ill health, accident and death are themes common to all of Jane Austen's novels. Some illnesses are physical, whereas some of her heroines experience excessive psychological, emotional and spiritual traumas. These references are too numerous to be either coincidental, glossed over or ignored. Austen expressed an interest in the mind/body relationship, believing that illness could be brought upon in certain personalities by the sufferer herself, and it seems that she might have held theories similar to those advocated by Mary Wollstonecraft in A Vindication of the Rights of Woman and even have anticipated those on feminine hysteria, and the effects of unconscious motives on behaviour, which were advanced by Freud in works such as The Interpretation of Dreams. This study examines Austen's novels, and the origin and purpose of physical and psychological illness in these, and looks at how Austen uses illness, accident and death, and more particularly how their roles progressively change and develop. For Austen's handling of these common issues appears to vary and to develop in line with the order of composition of her novels. She places increasing emphasis on them, not just to further plot, but also to reflect character change and development. Many of the parents or guardians of Austen's heroines are inadequate. And so Austen's heroines are often deprived of commendable models, left to find their own way, alone and in need of emotional support, to confront their youthful excesses, to work their way through these and to find their own destiny despite their handicaps. Self-improvement is neither pleasant nor easy, especially where one is young, inexperienced and alone. And, where heroines exhibit unhealthy or excessive interests in anything that diverts them from their paths of virtue or usefulness, the correction may frequently be painful. Thus most of the novels are, to a greater or lesser degree, filled with references to both physical and psychological ill health. This thesis examines how Austen used these illnesses, accidents and deaths in the various novels, both in the development of plot, as well as in the development of the character of the heroine in each instance. / English Studies / M.A. (English)

Classics and Modern Europe Language / M.A. Ancient Languages and Culture

This thesis explores the themes of Pride and Prejudice in two texts written roughly two hundred years apart. The first work that is analyzed is Elle et Lui by George Sand, published in the year 1859 . The second book that is explored throughout this dissertation is Merci pour ce moment: a best seller penned in 2014 by the ex french Première Dame Valérie Trierweiler. In particular, this thesis takes a closer look at these womens' use of a biography as a means to redeem their image as perceived by the public.

The health of adolescent boys is complex and surprisingly little is known about how adolescent boys perceive, conceptualise and experience their health. Thus, the overall aim of this thesis was to explore adolescent boys’ perceptions and experiences of health, emotions, masculinity and subjective social status (SSS). This thesis consists of a qualitative, a quantitative and a mixed methods study. The qualitative study aimed to explore how adolescent boys understand the concept of health and what they find important for its achievement. Furthermore, the adolescent boys’ views of masculinity, emotion management and their potential effects on wellbeing were explored. For this purpose, individual interviews were conducted with 33 adolescent boys aged 16-17 years. The quantitative study aimed to investigate the associations between pride, shame and health in adolescence. Data were collected through a cross-sectional postal survey with 705 adolescents. The purpose of the mixed methods study was to investigate associations between SSS in school, socioeconomic status (SES) and self-rated health (SRH), and to explore the concept of SSS in school. Cross-sectional data were combined with interview data in which the meaning of SSS was further explored. Individual interviews with 35 adolescents aged 17-18 years were conducted. In the qualitative study, data were analysed using Grounded Theory. In the quantitative study, statistical analyses (e.g., chi-square test and uni- and multivariable logistic regression analyses) were performed. In the mixed method study, a combination of statistical analyses and thematic network analysis was applied. The results showed that there was a complexity in how the adolescent boys viewed, experienced, dealt with and valued health. On a conceptual level, they perceived health as holistic but when dealing with difficult emotions, they were prone to separate the body from the mind. Thus, the adolescent boys experienced a difference between health as a concept and health as an experience (paper I). Concerning emotional orientation in masculinity, two main categories of masculine conceptions were identified: a gender-normative masculinity and a non-gender-normative masculinity (paper II). Gender-normative masculinity comprised two seemingly opposite emotional masculinity orientations, one towards toughness and the other towards sensitivity, both of which were highly influenced by contextual and situational group norms and demands, despite that their expressions are in contrast to each other. Non-gender-normative masculinity included an orientation towards sincerity, emphasising the personal values of the boys. Emotions were expressed more independently of peer group norms. The findings suggest that different masculinities and the expression of emotions are intricately intertwined and that managing emotions is vital for wellbeing. The present findings also showed that both shame and pride were significantly associated with SRH, and furthermore, that there seems to be a protective effect of experiencing pride for health (paper III). The results also demonstrated that SSS is strongly related to SRH, and high SRH is related to high SSS, and further that the positioning was done in a gendered space (paper IV). Results from all studies suggest that the emotional and relational aspects, as well as perceived SSS, were strongly related to SRH. Positive emotions, trustful relationships and having a sense of belonging were important factors for health and pride was an important emotion protecting health. Physical health, on the other hand, had a more subordinated value, but the body was experienced as an important tool to achieve health. Even though health was mainly perceived in a holistic manner by the boys, there were boys who were prone to dichotomise the health experience into a mind-body dualism when having to deal with difficult emotions. In conclusion, this thesis demonstrates that young, masculine health is largely experienced through emotions and relationships between individuals and their contexts affected by gendered practices. Health is to feel and function well in mind and body and to have trusting relationships. The results support theories on health as a social construction of interconnected processes. Having confidence in self-esteem, access to trustful relationships and the courage to resist traditional masculine norms while still reinforcing and maintaining social status are all conducive to good health. Researchers as well as professionals need to consider the complexity of adolescent boys’ health in which norms, values, relationships and gender form its social determinants. Those working with young boys should encourage them to integrate physical, social and emotional aspects of health into an interconnected and holistic experience. / Tonårspojkars hälsa är komplex och det finns förvånansvärt lite forskning gällande hur tonårspojkar uppfattar, konceptualiserar och upplever hälsa. Därför var det övergripande syftet med denna avhandling att undersöka tonårspojkars uppfattningar och upplevelser av hälsa, emotioner, maskuliniteter och subjektiv social status. Denna avhandling består av tre delstudier: en kvalitativ, en kvantitativ och en mixed metod studie. Den kvalitativa studien syftade till att undersöka hur tonårspojkar uppfattar begreppet hälsa och vad de tyckte var viktigt för att uppnå hälsa, samt deras syn på manlighet, känslohantering och potentiell påverkan på deras välbefinnande. För detta ändamål genomfördes individuella intervjuer med 33 unga pojkar i åldern 16-17 år. Den kvantitativa studien syftade till att undersöka sambandet mellan stolthet, skam och hälsa i tonåren, och data samlades in genom en postenkät där 705 ungdomar deltog. Syftet med mixed metod-studien var att undersöka sambanden mellan subjektiv social status (SSS) i skolan, socioekonomisk status (SES) och självskattad hälsa (SRH) samt att undersöka innebörden av begreppet subjektiv social status. Data från en enkät kombinerades med intervjudata av 35 ungdomar i åldern 17-18 år. I den kvalitativa studien analyserades data med hjälp av Grounded Theory metoden. I den kvantitativa studien användes statistiska analysersåsomchi-två-test samt uni- och multivariabel logistisk regressionsanalys. I mixedmetod-studien användes en kombination av statistiskaanalyser ochtematisknätverksanalys. Resultaten visade att det fanns en komplexitet i hur unga pojkar uppfattade, upplevde, hanterade och värderade hälsa. På en teoretisk nivå uppfattade de hälsa som holistisk men när det handlade om att hantera svåra känslor, var de benägna att separera kroppen från sinnet. Således upplevde de en skillnad mellan hälsa som begrepp och hälsa som upplevelse (I). Gällande den känslomässiga maskulina orienteringen, identifierades två huvudkategorier av maskulina föreställningar: könsnormativ och icke-könsnormativ maskulinitet (II). Könsnormativ maskulinitet bestod av två till synes motsatta maskulinitetsorienteringar, en mot tuffhet och den andra mot känslighet, som båda var starkt påverkad av kontextuella och situationella gruppnormer och krav, trots att deras uttryck kontrasterade varandra. Icke-könsnormativ maskulinitet inkluderade en inriktning mot uppriktighet som betonade de personliga värdena för pojkar; känslor kunde uttryckas mer oberoende av kamratgruppens normer. Resultaten tyder på att olika maskuliniteter och känslouttryck är starkt sammanflätade och att känslohantering är avgörande för välbefinnandet. Resultat visade också att upplevelser av skam och stolthet var signifikant associerade med självskattad hälsa, och att stolthet verkar ha en skyddande effekt för hälsa (III). Vidare visade resultaten att det finns ett starkt samband mellan subjektiv social status och självskattad hälsa och att mycket god självskattad hälsa är relaterad till hög subjektiv social status. Positioneringarna gjordes i en starkt genuskodad skolmiljö (IV). Resultat från allastudier visarattde känslomässiga ochrelationellaaspekternavaravgörandeförhälsa, liksomden subjektivt upplevda statussomvar starktrelaterad tillsjälvskattad hälsa. Positivakänslor och tillitsfulla relationer, och att känna tillhörighet och stolthet varviktiga faktorerförhälsa. Fysiskhälsa å andra sidan hadeettmerunderordnat värde menkroppen var ettviktigt verktyg för attuppnåhälsa. Även omhälsauppfattadespå ett holistiskt sätt av de flesta pojkarna, fanns det pojkar som varbenägna att dela upp hälsoupplevelsen i kropp och sinne när det gällde att hantera svåra känslor. Sammanfattningsvis visar denna avhandlingatt den unga, manligahälsantill stor delupplevs genomkänsloroch relationermellanindivider och derassammanhang som är starkt genuskodade. Resultaten stöderteorier omhälsasomensocial konstruktionav sammankopplade processer. Hälsa är att må och fungera bra i kropp och sinne och ha tillgång till tillitsfulla relationer. Att ha självkänsla, tillgång till förtroendefulla relationer och att våga stå emot traditionella maskulinitetsnormer utan att tappa status bidrar positivt till hälsa. Forskare samt yrkesverksamma måste ta hänsyn till komplexiteten i unga pojkars hälsa, där normer, värderingar, relationer och genus utgör dess sociala bestämningsfaktorer. De som arbetar med unga pojkar bör uppmuntra dem att integrera fysiska, sociala och känslomässiga aspekter av hälsa till en sammanlänkad helhetsupplevelse.

Dans la France de l’Ancien Régime, si les représentations de la condition féminine légitiment les valeurs d’une traditionnelle phallocratie, on note néanmoins que le dogme chrétien accorde aux femmes une place dans l’économie du salut. Dans un contexte de Contre-Réforme, celle-ci déterminera notamment, sur le plan socio-littéraire, les modalités de l’expérience mystique et de l’héroïsme au féminin : l’éthique chrétienne érige paradoxalement en modèle des figures féminines qui transcendent leur humanité dans le sacrifice et la mort. Mais au XVIIe siècle, l’évolution des notions d’abnégation et d’amour-propre éradique ce triomphe éphémère. En nous intéressant plus particulièrement aux remaniements de l’hypotexte euripidien dans l’Iphygenie de Rotrou (1640) et dans l’Iphigénie de Racine (1674), nous verrons comment les deux pièces traduisent ce déclin. Au premier chapitre de notre mémoire, nous nous intéresserons à l’espace de liberté que le discours chrétien confère aux femmes à travers le culte de la virginité et l’hypothétique transfiguration des corps célestes. Réintégrant ces données théologiques, la mystique marque l’essor d’un charisme féminin que la notion d’amour-propre déconstruira à l’ère classique. Dans un second chapitre, nous explorerons les développements de l’éthique héroïque qui ont servi à l’essor d’un héroïsme au féminin. Le troisième chapitre portera enfin sur l’échec d’une héroïne mythique qui, mettant à profit le dogme chrétien, menace dangereusement l’équilibre d’un ordre patriarcal. La critique littéraire convient généralement de l’irréfutable vertu de l’héroïne de Rotrou et de Racine. Au terme de notre analyse, nous entendons démontrer qu’Iphigénie est, a contrario, tragiquement reconnue coupable d’amour-propre par les deux dramaturges. / In the French Ancien Régime, the representations of the condition of women justify the values of male chauvinism. Nevertheless, in its economy of Salvation, Christianity gives women an important place. In the social context of Counter-Reformation, this situation defines the terms of a mystical experience of God exemplified, in literature, by a model of feminine heroism, as Christian ethics set up a feminine figure transcending her human condition through sacrifice and death. In the seventeenth century, however, the concept of abnegation and pride eradicates the short-lasting triumph of feminine heroism. Through Rotrou and Racine’s theatrical reorganization of Euripides’ Iphigenia in Aulis, we will see how both authors convey its end. In our first chapter, we will consider the space defered to women by Christianity through the cult of virginity and the transfiguration of celestial bodies. Reinstating these theological data, the mystics will mark the rise of a feminine charisma which will be deconstructed by the notion of pride in the late seventeenth century. In the second chapter, we will see how the development of heroism favours the expansion of a feminine heroic figure. In the last chapter we will analyse the failure of a mythical heroine who, by taking advantage of the Christian dogma, dangerously compromises the patriarcal order. While critics often assert the truthfull virtue of Iphigenia in Rotrou and Racine’s plays, we will intend to prove that she is, on the contrary, tragically convicted of pride by both authors.

Jane Austen sprinkles deaths throughout her novels as plot devices and character indicators, but she does not tackle death directly. Yet death pervades her novels, in a subtle yet brutal way, in the lives of her female characters. Austen reveals that death was the definition and the destiny of women; it was the driving force behind the social and economic constructs that ruled the eighteenth-century woman's life, manifested in language, literature, religion, art, and even in a woman's doubts about herself. In Northanger Abbey Catherine Morland discovers that women, like female characters in gothic texts, are written and rewritten by the men whose language dominates them. Catherine herself becomes an example of real gothic when she is silenced and her spirit murdered by Henry Tilney. Marianne Dashwood barely escapes the powerful male constructs of language and literature in Sense and Sensibility. Marianne finds that the literal, maternal, wordless language of women counts for nothing in the social world, where patriarchal,figurative language rules, and in her attempt to channel her literal language into the social language of sensibility, she is placed in a position of more deadly nothingness, cast by society as a scorned woman and expected to die. Fanny Price in Mansfield Park is sacrificed as Eve, but in her death-like existence and in her rise to success she echoes Christ, who is ultimately a maternal figure that encapsulates the knowledge of the goddess, the knowledge that from death will come life. Emma Woodhouse in Emma discovers that her perfection, sanctioned by artistic standards, is really a means by which society eases its fears about death by projecting death onto women as a beautiful ideal. In Persuasion, Anne Elliotfindsthat women endure death while men struggle against it, and this endurance requires more courage than most men possess or understand. Austen's novels expose the undercurrent of death in women's lives, yet hidden in her heroines is the maternal power of women—the power to bear children, to bear language and culture, to bear both life and death.