À première vue, l’équité apparaît comme un phénomène absent du droit pénal. Il faut dire que l’idée de l’équité a été victime d’une histoire mouvementée autorisant les plus grandes confusions à son égard, lesquelles se sont cristallisées sous la période révolutionnaire. L’absence de référence explicite à la notion et l’anathème dont elle fait l’objet, dans une matière qui ne tolère aucun facteur déstabilisant, ne sauraient pourtant signifier que l’équité ait été totalement évincée du droit pénal. En réalité, elle est un phénomène occulte, dont il faut révéler les manifestations latentes, pour finalement convenir d’une utilisation implicite de la notion par le juge et le législateur. La rigidité inspirée par la légalité criminelle n’étant qu’apparente, l’équité jouit en effet d’une importante marge d’expression. D’une part, flexible, l’équité permet de réaliser une égalité concrète. Elle se trouve en conséquence implicitement tolérée dans la matière pénale en tant qu’outil d’harmonisation du droit. L’équité joue alors un rôle de complément à la loi pénale, en assurant le passage du général – la loi – vers le cas particulier. D’autre part, l’équité peut être mobilisée par le juge pénal, sans qu’il en ait nécessairement conscience, lorsque, confronté à un cas particulier, il décide de contourner l’application de la loi pénale qui risquerait de produire des effets iniques. Au service d’un jugement individuel subjectif, en référence à des valeurs issues du fond culturel dont il procède, l’équité s’exprime hors du cadre de la loi pénale. Elle se place alors en élément perturbateur venant concurrencer l’échelle des valeurs fixées par le législateur. Qu’elle vienne compléter ou concurrencer la loi, l’équité constitue toujours un moyen d’interroger les objectifs de la matière pénale dans la mesure où elle est souvent à l’origine d’évolutions législatives. En définitive, l’étude démontre que l’équité, sans être un principe autonome, est au coeur du droit pénal. / The lack of clear reference to fairness and the fact that it’s rejected in criminal law which does not tolerate any destabilizing factor does not mean that fairness is totally excluded from it. Actually it is a hidden phenomenon. Judges and legislators use the notion tacitly. As the rigidity of the principle of legality seems to be only apparent, fairness has in fact quite some room to express itself in criminal law.On the one hand, the flexibility it allows, and the underlying goal to carry out concrete equality both explain it be tolerated in some respects as a tool to standardize law. The need for flexibility is inherent to each legal system. Fairness has a complementary role for criminal law. It enables to guarantee the transition from generality – that is law – to particular cases. On the other hand, fairness can beimplemented by judges in order to circumvent the application of criminal law when it induces iniquitous consequences. As the expression of subjective individual judgment which refers to judges’ values, fairness is expressed beyond law itself. Ultimately, our study shows that fairness, without being an independent principle, is at the heart of criminal law, because at last, expressed as a complement or as an adversary to criminal law, looking for fairness often leads to legislative evolutions.

Principle of legality and its application in criminal proceedings Abstract This diploma thesis focuses on the principle of legality and its application in criminal proceedings. Based on this principle, the prosecuting attorney is obliged to prosecute all crimes about which s/he learns unless the law or declared international treaties stipulate otherwise. It is one of the basic principles on which criminal proceedings in the Czech Republic are based. The introduction deals with the definition of the term "criminal proceedings" and its basic principles and their importance from the point of view of professionals in the field of criminal law. Next part of the thesis is devoted to the concept of the principle of legality in criminal codes valid on our territory from the year 1918 until today. It mainly concerns the changes in criminal proceedings and the motion of the principle of legality including the exceptions which were gradually introduced. The following chapter deals with the comparison of the principle of legality and the principle of opportunity and with other related principles on which the criminal proceedings are based. Special attention is paid to the application of the principle of legality in preliminary proceedings and breaching this principle in favour of the opportunity principle. Based on...

Made available in DSpace on 2016-04-26T20:27:36Z (GMT). No. of bitstreams: 1 Ricardo Regis Laraia.pdf: 795964 bytes, checksum: 8070644186db6d93695968f788f78aed (MD5) Previous issue date: 2008-06-04 / Item II Article 5 of the Federal Constitution of Brazil states that: no one is compelled to do or not do anything if not according to the law . It expresses what is known as the principle of legality. As a fruit of the so-called State of Law, it has followed political, economical and social transformations, as well as the development of Law Theory and Philosophy. Understanding it demands a rectrospective understanding of the major schools and trends of judicial thought of the last centuries. The scope of this undertaking is to demonstrate that, in the actual context, the principle of legality has two faces. In Public Law, it still represents the ideals of freedom and equality originated in the Age of the Enlightment, but in diferent modalities as it approaches Constitutional, Criminal, Tax or Administrative Law. However, in Private Law, the principle represents liberty conditioned by ethics and morality as conducted by law, in other words, liberty guided by fraternity. This study is exclusively based on library research. It involves history, economics, sociology, philosophy and law. The first parts ares focused on the investigation of the origin and evolution of the principle of legality. The final parts are dedicated to the analisys of the principle in present time. At the final part, the conclusions are presented in synthesis / O inciso II, do artigo 5o, da Constituição Federal estabelece que: ninguém será obrigado a fazer ou deixar de fazer alguma coisa senão em virtude de lei . Ele expressa o que se conhece por princípio da legalidade. Fruto do chamado Estado de Direito, acompanhou as transformações políticas, econômicas e sociais, bem como o desenvolvimento da Teoria e da Filosofia do Direito. Compreendê-lo exige que seja promovido um retrospecto das principais escolas e correntes de pensamento jurídico dos últimos séculos. O escopo dessa empreitada é demonstrar que, no contexto atual, o princípio da legalidade tem dupla face. No Direito Público, ainda representa os ideais de liberdade e de igualdade originários do Iluminismo, mas de diferentes modos, conforme se trate de Direito Constitucional, Penal, Tributário ou Administrativo. Porém, no Direito Privado, o princípio representa a liberdade condicionada pela ética e moral conduzidas pela lei, ou seja, a liberdade guiada pela fraternidade. Este estudo é empreendido exclusivamente com base em pesquisa bibliográfica. Envolve História, Economia, Sociologia, Filosofia e Direito. As primeiras partes são voltadas à investigação da origem e da evolução do princípio da legalidade. As últimas partes são dedicadas ao exame do princípio na atualidade. Ao final, as conclusões são lançadas a guisa de síntese

<p>The thesis has as purpose to describe and analyse a decision made be the Swedish tax committee in which it was decided that a cooperative economical associations selling price, which was less than the comparable public bonds market price, would be the focus of a withdrawal tax. There are exceptions from a withdrawal tax, that is if the transaction has a business motivation. However the concept, business motivation, is narrowly interpreted both in the preparatory works and in case law, which makes it irrelevant to the situation at hand. A cooperative economical association is a form of association nearest akin to the limited companies. These types of associations have as purpose to increase their owners wealth with the benefit of freedom from personal responsibility. The work concludes that the purpose and meaning of a withdrawal tax is necessary to secure a consistent legality and neutrality between persons conduction business and persons who do not. However, there is one part of the subject matter that seems to be unreasonable. This thesis will show that the market price taken from the public bond market, is not a legal, neutral or comparable price to estimate the full width of a withdrawal tax.</p>

The thesis has as purpose to describe and analyse a decision made be the Swedish tax committee in which it was decided that a cooperative economical associations selling price, which was less than the comparable public bonds market price, would be the focus of a withdrawal tax. There are exceptions from a withdrawal tax, that is if the transaction has a business motivation. However the concept, business motivation, is narrowly interpreted both in the preparatory works and in case law, which makes it irrelevant to the situation at hand. A cooperative economical association is a form of association nearest akin to the limited companies. These types of associations have as purpose to increase their owners wealth with the benefit of freedom from personal responsibility. The work concludes that the purpose and meaning of a withdrawal tax is necessary to secure a consistent legality and neutrality between persons conduction business and persons who do not. However, there is one part of the subject matter that seems to be unreasonable. This thesis will show that the market price taken from the public bond market, is not a legal, neutral or comparable price to estimate the full width of a withdrawal tax.

Pastaruoju metu Lietuvoje norminių aktų leidybos procese pradeda vyrauti poįstatyminiai aktai, kurie papildo ar patikslina įstatymus. Tai neretai sukelia grėsmę pažeisti teisėtumą. Teisėtumo principas reikalauja, kad valstybės institucijos, kurdamos teisės aktus, neviršytų savo kompetencijos, laikytųsi kiekvienai teisės aktų rūšiai nustatytos tų aktų priėmimo ir išleidimo tvarkos (procedūrų) ir subordinacijos pagal juridinę galią: Seimo priimami įstatymai turi neprieštarauti Konstitucijai, o Prezidento dekretai, Vyriausybės nutarimai, kitų valstybės institucijų teisės aktai – Konstitucijai ir įstatymams. Šis principas teisinėje valstybėje reiškia ne tik formos, bet ir turinio teisėtumą - konkretus teisės aktas turi neprieštarauti ne tik aukštesnę juridinę galią turinčiam teisės aktui, bet ir pagrindinėms žmogaus teisėms, jis neturi įtvirtinti įstatymų leidėjo savivalės tų teisių atžvilgiu. Teisė konstatuoti tokį prieštaravimą suteikta Konstituciniam ir administraciniam teismams. / The principle of legality claims that the State Institutions, when legislating the Acts of Law, shall not overstep its competence, shall observe the established procedure for the adoption and promulgation of the Acts of Law of every type and the subordination according to legal power. The Laws being adopted by the Seimas shall be in conformity with the Constitution, but the Decrees of the President, the Resolutions of the Government, the Acts of Law of other State Institutions shall be in conformity with the Constitution and Legislation. This study covers the theoretical and practical aspects for the investigation of the legality of the Statutory Administrative Acts. The conception of the principle of legality, the implementation and protection of this principle in public administration are analysed on the theoretical level. By applying the methods of documentation analyses and comparative investigation the Acts of Law of the Republic of Lithuania as well as foreign countries, regulating the investigation of the legality of the Statutory Administrative Acts, are analysed. The essence, types and process of this investigation are defined. The practice of the Constitutional and Administrative Courts of the Republic of Lithuania in the lawsuits with respect to the legality of Statutory Administrative Acts is analysed on practical level. By applying the method of empirical investigation it is pursued to highlight particular general attributes and regularities of the practice of... [to full text]

中共一貫自詡其法律體系乃屬於「社會主義法制」，就刑法領域而言即具 有獨特之立法體例，如此的刑法規範復加上其特殊刑事司法制度，不難預 見其刑事裁判之「特殊性」。量刑本為刑罰學上之重要課題，向為法治國 家刑事實務工作中一相當重要卻又不易解決的難題。刑罰之裁量雖為刑法 就犯罪行為科處刑罰之相關規定的具體表現，然影響量刑結果之因素尚非 限於刑事法律之規定、審判人員本身等因素，即法院制度、審判人員之產 生管道、審判原則乃至於整個司法體系亦然，特別是就中共而言，實體規 定外之因素似更具意義，往往即係左右量刑結果之癥結所在，應予重視。 於大陸法系國家，法官之量刑雖被視為「自由裁量」之範疇，然實際上卻 非漫無標準，可任法官恣意而為，是以刑法學上乃有「量刑基準」之概念 ，如我國刑法第57，58條即係關於法官量刑基準之規定。中共雖自稱其為 社會主義法制，然究其實則仍屬成文立法，因之探討中共刑事司法上之量 刑活動即具實義。然而，除分析其刑法上有關法定裁量事實之規定（刑法 第57條）外，亦須探討中共審判人員產生之管道，如何任免及其於審判活 動中之角色扮演、地位與權限，以明瞭中共所謂「獨立審判」原則之實質 意涵。此外，由中共人大常委會、最高人民法院、司法部、 公安部等機 關發佈之「通知」、「法定」、「批覆」等所謂規範性文件，通常即具有 特別法之效力，當即影響審判人員之量刑，是其刑事司法上之特點。當然 ，中共刑法第79條關於「類推適用」之規定，亦足以影響定罪量刑之結果 。以上各點，均係探討中共量刑活動時所須注意之要項。

An issue that has always caused controversy, both in the theory and in the practice, is the application of the law over time, which becomes more complex in terms of its non-retroactivity or retroactivity. In the present article, the author develops theretroactivity of the most favorable rule principle. First, the author describes the concept and fundamentals of retroactivity. Then, he reports its normative support and its delimitation. Finally, the author exposes the most discussed and controversial assumptions on its application and non-application, making parallels with its regulation in Spain. / Un tema que siempre ha causado controversia, tanto en la teoría como en la práctica, es la aplicación de la norma jurídica en el tiempo, la cual se complejiza en cuanto a su irretroactividad o retroactividad. En el presente artículo, el autor desarrolla el principio de la retroactividad de la norma más favorable. En primer lugar, describe el concepto y fundamentos de la retroactividad. A continuación, informa sobre su sustento normativo y su delimitación. Finalmente, expone los supuestos discutidos sobre su aplicación e inaplicación, haciendo un paralelismo con su regulación en España.

The teacher certification system was introduced in Sweden on July 1, 2011,through the Act (2011: 189), reforming the Swedish Education Act. The purposeof the new certification system was to increase the quality of Swedish schools, toraise the status of the teacher profession and to clarify what preschool andschoolteachers can teach. As a result of this new system, only certified preschooland schoolteachers can be permanently employed in Swedish schools, and onlycertified schoolteachers are able to set grades on their own.The certification of preschool and schoolteachers can be revoked if at leastone of the conditions stated in Chapter 2, Section 23, Paragraph 2 in the SwedishEducation Act (2010:800) is met. The Teachers Responsibility Board (Lärarnas-ansvarsnämnd) was formed, in part, in order to make decisions regarding revo-cations of teacher certifications. The Teachers Responsibility Board´s decisionscan be appealed to the Administrative Court.The purpose of this essay is to investigate whether Chapter 2, Section 23, Par-agraph 2, in the Swedish Education Act about revocation of preschool andschoolteacher’s certification fulfills the requisites of clarity and predictability,which follow from the constitutional principle of legality.Case laws from the Teachers Responsibility Board and from the Administra-tive Court have been used, to a large extent, in this essay to examine how thedecision-making bodies have interpreted and applied the aforementioned legalprovision.The conclusion is that Chapter 2, Section 23, Paragraph 2, in the SwedishEducation Act doesn´t fulfill the requisites of clarity and predictability that followfrom the constitutional principle of legality because this legal provision is vagueand ambiguous.The teacher certification system is a relatively new system, and there is a lackof research on the subject, which justifies the need to investigate this topic fur-ther.

L'article 111-4 du Code pénal prévoit, par une formule laconique, que « la loi pénale est d'interprétation stricte ». Corollaire de la légalité criminelle, ce principe a vocation à protéger les individus des risques d'une répression arbitraire en soumettant toute atteinte à leur liberté au strict domaine de la loi, expression de la volonté générale. À dépasser les désaccords entourant les théories de l'interprétation, analysée comme un procédé de révélation ou de construction de sens, cet impératif intervient a minima comme une limite à la liberté de l'interprète. Or le principe de légalité dans lequel l'exigence tire son fondement a subi d'importantes mutations. L'admission de la représentation, l'inflation législative, et l'instrumentalisation de la fonction intimidatrice de la norme pénale, ont en effet entraîné une certaine déliquescence de la loi. L'instauration de contrôles de constitutionnalité et de conventionnalité de la loi participent à ce mouvement. Par un effet de balancier, le recul de la loi s'est traduit par une recrudescence du pouvoir judiciaire. Chargée de contrôler la conventionnalité de la loi et les conditions de renvoi d'une question prioritaire de constitutionnalité, la chambre criminelle a vu son office profondément modifié. La protection effective de la liberté individuelle est dorénavant réputée être mieux assurée par le contrôle judiciaire des normes pénales que par le recours à la loi : la légalité formelle se mue en une légalité matérielle. Or, en qualité de corollaire de la légalité criminelle, le principe d'interprétation stricte est nécessairement atteint par cette mutation. Bien que demeurant pareillement formulé, il voit en effet son fondement substantiellement modifié. L'exigence d'une stricte interprétation étant originellement justifiée par déférence à l'égard de la volonté générale exprimée par la loi, la reconnaissance de l'incapacité de cette dernière à la saisir entraîne une certaine souplesse dans l'application du principe. Dès lors qu'il est compétent pour contrôler la loi, le juge est par ailleurs davantage enclin à se libérer de son emprise. Il convient alors de s'interroger sur la manière dont la chambre criminelle applique le principe d'interprétation stricte de la loi pénale à l'aune des mutations de la légalité. Il apparaît que, sans suivre une ligne de conduite précise, la chambre criminelle tend à influer sur la politique pénale en usant de son pouvoir d'interprétation pour réajuster, de manière conjoncturelle et par touches d'ajustements ponctuels, le seuil de la répression fixé par le législateur. Dans un système de hiérarchie des normes se transformant en réseau normatif, l'interprétation devient outil de construction de la norme pénale. / Article 111-4 of the Penal Code succinctly provides that “criminal law is to be interpreted strictly”. Deriving from the principle of legality, the principle of strict construction intends to protect individuals from arbitrary repression by submitting any infringement on their freedom to the strict scope of the law, which is the expression of the general will. Setting aside the disagreements regarding the theory of interpretation – analyzed as a method of either revealing or constructing meaning – this imperative, at least, limits the interpreter's freedom. However, the principle of legality, on which the imperative of strict construction is based, has undergone significant changes. The adoption of a representative system, legislative inflation, along with authorities taking advantage of the deterrence provided by criminal norms has, to a degree, led to a decline of the law. The establishment of constitutionality and conventionality reviews of the law has also contributed to it. As a result of a seesaw effect, the decline of the law resulted in an increase in the role of the judiciary. The Criminal Division of the French Supreme Court of Appeal (Court de Cassation) is responsible for reviewing the conventionality of the law and the referral procedure of preliminary rulings on constitutionality. Consequently, the Criminal Division's function has undergone major changes. Protecting individual freedom is now deemed more effective when carried out by the judicial review of criminal norms rather than by resorting to the law. Procedural legality turns into substantive legality. Therefore, as a result of the principle of legality, the principle of strict construction is affected by this transformation. Even though the principle of strict construction remains formulated in the same way, its founding principle has substantially changed. The requirement of a strict construction was originally justified out of deference for the general will, which is expressed by the law. Thus, the acknowledgement of the law's incapacity to grasp the general will leads to some flexibility in the implementation of the principle. Since the judge has the authority to review the law, he is more inclined to interpret it freely. How the Criminal Division implements the principle of strict construction of criminal law in light of changes in legality needs then to be examined: The Criminal Division tends to influence criminal policies, even though it does not seem to be following a particular course of action, by exercising its power of interpretation to adjust, as circumstances dictate, the threshold for punishment set by the legislator. In a normative hierarchy system that turns into a normative network, interpretation becomes a tool to construct criminal norms.