Le droit privé européen se construit progressivement, à la fois en tant que branche du droit, notamment à travers les instruments du droit de l’Union européenne, et en tant que discipline juridique, c’est-à-dire comme savoir juridique. Le rôle de la doctrine apparaît primordial dans cette construction (ou reconstruction dès lors que le jus commune médiéval est considéré comme un précédent). Au caractère fragmentaire et sectoriel des instruments du droit de l’Union européenne touchant au droit privé, la doctrine a répondu en élaborant des instruments de droit prospectif qui ambitionnent de construire le droit privé européen comme une branche du droit complète et cohérente. Les projets publiés couvrent par exemple la théorie générale des contrats (Principes du droit européen des contrats, dirigés par O. Lando), le droit de la responsabilité civile (Principles of European Tort Law), voire tout le droit patrimonial (Draft Common Frame of Reference, dirigé par C. von Bar). La doctrine joue aussi un rôle dans la diffusion des concepts dans les différents systèmes juridiques (estoppel, intérêts négatif et positif, incombance,…). Cette diffusion est favorisée par l’apparition de manuels, de cours, de diplômes consacrés au droit privé européen, alors même que celui-ci demeure très incomplet. Quelle que soit la manière dont est envisagé le droit privé européen, la doctrine tient un rôle essentiel. L’omniprésence de la doctrine impose donc de s’interroger sur son rôle dans la construction, ou selon certains dans la reconstruction, d’un droit privé européen. / European private law is gradually built, both as a branch of law, especially through EU legal instruments, and as a legal discipline, i.e. as a legal knowledge, a jurisprudence. Legal scholarship plays a fundamental part in this construction (or reconstruction when medieval jus commune is regarded as a precedent). In response to the fragmentary and sectorial approach of EU legal instruments concerning private law, legal scholarship has drawn up several legal drafts; these drafts aim to build the European private law as a complete and consistent branch of law. The published drafts include general contract law (Principles of European Contract Law, edited by O. Lando), tort law (Principles of European Tort Law), and even the whole patrimonial law (Draft Common Frame of Reference, edited by C. von Bar). The legal scholarship also plays a part in the diffusion of concepts in different legal systems (estoppel, reliance and expectation interests, Obliegenheit, …). This diffusion is enhanced by the emergence of books, lectures, degrees in European private law, even if this law remains very incomplete. Whichever way European private law is understood, legal scholarship contributes in an essential manner. The omnipresence of the legal scholarship leads to question its role in the construction, or according to some authors the reconstruction, of a European private law.

Juridiction suprême de l’ordre judiciaire, la Cour de cassation a pour mission de contrôler le respect de la loi ; elle en est la gardienne. La Cour de cassation est par conséquent juge du droit et ses décisions s’imposent aux juridictions qui lui sont inférieures. Ce rôle de la Haute juridiction est l’héritage de la période révolutionnaire pendant laquelle s’est exprimée une volonté : celle de faire table rase du gouvernement des juges. Ce pouvoir judiciaire exacerbé s’est en effet illustré sous l’Ancien régime à travers l’activité des Parlements. De cette volonté de rupture est née une idéologie légaliste : l’activité du juge est encadrée par la loi et ce dernier doit raisonner en fonction d’elle. Face à ce constat, la thèse adopte alors une approche descriptive de ce légalisme. Cette idéologie influence la fonction de juger dans sa conception et son expression, présentant alors le juge comme « la bouche de la loi ». Pourtant, derrière cette apparence très formelle, ces motivations brèves et ces raisonnements syllogistiques, le juge de la Cour de cassation se révèle un interprète authentique et fait état d’un réel pouvoir judiciaire normatif. A partir de cette observation, cette étude se propose de dévoiler cette réalité latente, d’expliquer de quelle manière elle s’établit et de comprendre pourquoi, malgré l’évidence du réel, l’apparence légaliste reste la représentation officielle. Un décalage entre l’apparence de l’office du juge tel qu’il est exprimé et la réalité de l’office tel qu’il est exercé est donc identifiable. C’est sur la base de ce constat et en prenant en compte les contraintes internationales - notamment européennes - pesant sur l’office du juge français que cette recherche fait le choix de s’inscrire dans une approche pragmatique en proposant des évolutions de la fonction de juger dans un objectif de cohérence, d’intelligibilité et d’efficacité de la justice. / Supreme Court of the french judiciary system, the Court of cassation has the mission to control the respect of the law ; the Court is its gardian. Its decisions are imperative upon the lower jurisdictions of the judicial system. This role of the High Jurisdiction is the inheritance of the revolutionary period during which the will was to ward off the government by judiciary. This government of judges took place in France under the Old Regime through the activity of Parliaments. Through this will of break was born a legalistic ideology : the activity of the judge is supervised by the law ; judges has to argue according to it. Considering this, the thesis adopts then a descriptive approach : the legalism has an impact on the conception of the judge, his judicial activity and its expression. The judge is presented as the mouth of the law. Nevertheless, behind this formal appearance, these brief motivations of the decisions and these syllogistic reasonings, the judge of the Court of cassation shows himself an interpreter and has a real normative judiciary power. This work suggests then revealing this reality, to explain how it becomes established and to understand why in spite of the obvious fact of the reality, the legalistic appearance remains the official representation. A gap between the appearance of the office of the judge as it is expressed and the reality of the office as it is exercised is thus identifiable. It’s on the basis of this observation and by considering the international constraints (european constraints in particular) impacting the judge activity that this thesis chooses to have a pragmatic approach by suggesting evolutions of the judicial function in an objective of coherence, intelligibility and efficiency of the justice.

Thesis (LLM (Private Law))--University of Stellenbosch, 2006. / End of life decisions regarding defective babies raise several controversial questions. The root of the problem in withdrawing or withholding life-sustaining treatment from defective babies lies in the conflict between human emotions, technological advancements and legal considerations. As a result of advances in medical science and neonatal technology, the lives of defective babies can often be saved or indefinitely prolonged. The question has become not whether we can treat these babies, but rather whether we should. Whether or not a defective baby’s life must be prolonged raises serious moral and ethical issues. A life compromised by severe physical and mental handicaps is weighed against an early and painless death. The best interest of the baby is the primary consideration from a legal point of view. Various factors must be taken into account to give content to this concept. Another central question is to determine who the decision maker(s) should be and what weight should be given to their opinions. Due to the fact that defective babies can not participate in this decision making process or communicate their wishes and preferences, surrogate decision makers must decide on their behalf. In sharp contrast to England, America and Canada, there is hardly any literature and no reported case law in South Africa to demonstrate the complexity of end of life decisions regarding defective babies. Selective non-treatment of defective babies have received little attention in the South African law. The Bill of Rights, inspired by regional and international Conventions determine the framework from a juristic perspective wherein decisions must be made and justified. This framework requires that the focus must be on the most vulnerable and dependant, namely the defective baby.

A legally protectable trade secret is secret information which is applicable in trade or industry, in respect of which the owner has the will to keep it secret, which has economic value, and which is concrete enough to be embodied in a tangible form and to exist separately form its owner. A comparative study reveals that while trade secrets can be infringed in three ways - namely unauthorized acquisition, use and disclosure - contemporary legal systems differ in respect of both the ambit and juridical bases of protection against such infringing conduct. The legal protection of trade secrets is promoted by the recognition of a subjective right to the trade secret. This right is an intellectual property right independent of statutory intellectual property rights like patent rights and copyright, the common law intellectual property right to goodwill, and the personality right to privacy. In South African private law, trade secrets can be adequately protected by the application of general delictual and contractual principles. Delictual wrongfulness of trade secret misappropriation is constituted by an infringement of the right to the trade secret. Thus any act that interferes with the powers of use, enjoyment and disposal exercised by someone with a subjective right to that trade secret, is, in the absence of legal grounds justifying such interference, wrongful. Patrim·onial loss caused by both intentional and negligent infringement of trade secrets should be actionable under the actio legis Aquiliae. Wrongful trade secret infringements can - also in the absence of fault on the part of the infringer - be prevented by an interdict. Protection of trade secrets is not restricted to the contexts of either unlawful competition, or fiduciary relationships. Trade secret protection is on a sound footing in South African law, compares favourably with the position in other legal systems, and is in step with the international agreement on Trade-Related Aspects of Intellectual Property Rights to which South Africa is a signatory nation. / Private Law / LL.D. (Private Law)

Thesis (LLD )--Stellenbosch University, 2011. / ENGLISH ABSTRACT: Acquisitive prescription (“prescription”), an original method of acquisition of ownership, is regulated by two prescription acts. Prescription is mostly regarded as an unproblematic area of South African property law, since its requirements are reasonably clear and legally certain. However, the unproblematic nature of this legal rule was recently brought into question by the English Pye case. This case concerned an owner in England who lost valuable land through adverse possession. After the domestic courts confirmed that the owner had lost ownership through adverse possession, the Fourth Chamber of the European Court of Human Rights in Strasbourg found that this legal institution constituted an uncompensated expropriation, which is in conflict with Article 1 of Protocol No 1 to the European Convention on Human Rights and Fundamental Freedoms 1950. This judgment may have repercussions for the constitutionality of prescription in South African law, despite the fact that the Grand Chamber – on appeal – found that adverse possession actually constitutes a mere (constitutional) deprivation of property. Therefore, it was necessary to investigate whether prescription is in line with section 25 of the Constitution. To answer this question, the dissertation investigates the historical roots of prescription in Roman and Roman-Dutch law, together with its modern requirements in South African law. The focus then shifts to how prescription operates in certain foreign systems, namely England, the Netherlands, France and Germany. This comparative perspective illustrates that the requirements for prescription are stricter in jurisdictions with a positive registration system. Furthermore, the civil law countries require possessors to possess property with the more strenuous animus domini, as opposed to English law that merely requires possession animo possidendi. The justifications for prescription are subsequently analysed in terms of the Lockean labour theory, Radin’s personality theory and law and economics theory. These theories indicate that sufficient moral and economic reasons exist for retaining prescription in countries with a negative registration system. These conclusions are finally used to determine whether prescription is in line with the property clause. The FNB methodology indicates that prescription constitutes a non-arbitrary deprivation of property. If one adheres to the FNB methodology it is equally unlikely that prescription could amount to an uncompensated expropriation or even to constructive expropriation. I conclude that prescription is in line with the South African property clause, which is analogous to the decision of the Grand Chamber in Pye. / AFRIKAANSE OPSOMMING: Verkrygende verjaring (“verjaring”), ‘n oorspronklike wyse van verkryging van eiendomsreg, word gereguleer deur twee verjaringswette. Verjaring word grotendeels beskou as ‘n onproblematiese aspek van die Suid-Afrikaanse sakereg, aangesien die vereistes daarvan taamlik duidelik en regseker is. Nietemin is die onproblematiese aard van hierdie regsinstelling onlangs deur die Engelse Pye-saak in twyfel getrek. Hierdie saak handel oor ‘n eienaar wat waardevolle grond in Engeland deur adverse possession verloor het. Nadat die plaaslike howe die verlies van eiendomsreg deur adverse possession bevestig het, het die Vierde Kamer van die Europese Hof van Menseregte in Straatsburg bevind dat hierdie regsreël neerkom op ‘n ongekompenseerde onteiening, wat inbreuk maak op Artikel 1 van die Eerste Protokol tot die Europese Verdrag van die Reg van die Mens 1950. Hierdie uitspraak kan implikasies inhou vir die grondwetlikheid van verjaring in die Suid-Afrikaanse reg, ten spyte van die Groot Kamer se bevinding – op appèl – dat adverse possession eintlik neerkom op ‘n grondwetlik geldige ontneming van eiendom. Derhalwe was dit nodig om te bepaal of verjaring bestaanbaar is met artikel 25 van die Suid-Afrikaanse Grondwet. Vir hierdie doel word die geskiedkundige wortels van verjaring in die Romeinse en Romeins- Hollandse reg, tesame met die moderne vereistes daarvan in die Suid-Afrikaanse reg, ondersoek. Daar word ook gekyk na hoe hierdie regsreël in buitelandse regstelsels, naamlik Engeland, Nederland, Frankryk en Duitsland, funksioneer. Hierdie regsvergelykende studie toon dat verjaring strenger vereistes het in regstelsels met ‘n positiewe registrasiestelsel. Verder vereis die sivielregtelike lande dat ‘n besitter die grond animo domini moet besit, wat strenger is as die Engelsregtelike animus possidendi-vereiste. Die regverdigingsgronde van verjaring word vervolgens geëvalueer ingevolge die Lockeaanse arbeidsteorie, Radin se persoonlikheidsteorie en law and economics-teorie. Hierdie teorieë illustreer dat daar genoegsame morele en ekonomiese regverdigings vir die bestaan van verjaring is in lande met ‘n negatiewe regstrasiestelsel. Hierdie bevindings word ten slotte gebruik om te bepaal of verjaring bestaanbaar is met die eiendomsklousule. Die FNB-metodologie toon dat verjaring neerkom op ‘n geldige, nie-arbitrêre ontneming volgens artikel 25(1). Indien ‘n mens die FNB-metodologie volg is dit eweneens onwaarskynlik dat verjaring op ‘n ongekompenseerde onteiening – of selfs op konstruktiewe onteiening – neerkom. Gevolglik strook verjaring wel met die Suid-Afrikaanse eiendomsklousule, welke uitkoms soortgelyk is aan dié van die Groot Kamer in die Pye-saak.

Thesis (LLD)--Stellenbosch University, 2013. / ENGLISH ABSTRACT: This dissertation examines the approach to statutory formalities in South African law. It focuses primarily on formal requirements which result in nullity in the event of non-compliance, and in particular, on those prescribed for alienations of land (section 2(1) of the Alienation of Land Act 68 of 1981) and suretyships (section 6 of the General Law Amendment Act 50 of 1956). To provide context, the study commences with a general historical overview of the development of formal requirements. It also considers the advantages and disadvantages of formalities. The conclusion is reached that an awareness of both is required if a court is to succeed in dealing with the challenges posed by statutory formalities. The dissertation then considers more specific aspects of the topic of formal requirements, including the difference between material and non-material terms. It also reveals that the current interpretation of statutory formalities is quite flexible and tends towards a conclusion of validity if reasonably possible. However, cases involving unnamed or undisclosed principals present particular challenges in this context, and the possibility of greater consistency, without the loss of theoretical soundness, is investigated. A discussion of what should be in writing, and with what exactitude, necessarily involves a consideration of the extent to which extrinsic evidence is admissible. The interaction between formal requirements and the parol evidence rule is therefore investigated. Special attention is paid to incorporation by reference. After an examination of the common-law approach to this topic, the conclusion is reached that room exists for developing this area of South African law, especially where a sufficient reference to another document is concerned. Rectification also enjoys detailed examination, due to the unique approach adopted in South African law. Where formalities are constitutive, a South African court first satisfies itself that a recordal complies with these requirements ex facie the document, before it will consider whether rectification may be appropriate. An analysis of both civilian and common-law judgments suggests that the South African approach is based on a misconception of the purpose of rectification. This leads to the further conclusion that the requirement of ex facie compliance should be abolished as a separate step and that a court should rather consider whether awarding a claim for rectification would defeat the objects of formalities in general. Finally, the remedies available to a party who performs in terms of an agreement void for formal non-compliance and the effect of full performance in terms of such an agreement, receive attention. An investigation of the remedies available in other legal systems reveals that the South African approach of limiting a party to an enrichment claim is unnecessarily restrictive. It is argued that local courts should reconsider their exclusion of estoppel in this context, particularly in cases where one party’s unconscionable conduct has led the other to rely on the formally defective agreement. In cases of full performance, no remedies are available, but it is argued that a distinction should be drawn between reciprocal and unilateral performances. / AFRIKAANSE OPSOMMING: Hierdie proefskrif ondersoek die benadering tot statutêre formaliteite in die Suid-Afrikaanse reg. Dit fokus hoofsaaklik op die formele vereistes wat lei tot nietigheid in die geval van nie-nakoming, en in die besonder dié wat voorgeskryf word vir die vervreemding van grond (artikel 2 (1) van die Wet op Vervreemding van Grond 68 van 1981) en borgstellings (artikel 6 van die Algemene Regswysigingswet 50 van 1956). Ten einde die nodige konteks te verskaf, begin die studie met ‘n algemene historiese oorsig van die ontwikkeling van formaliteite. Dit oorweeg ook die voor- en nadele van formaliteite. Die gevolgtrekking is dat ‘n bewustheid van beide vereis word indien ‘n hof die uitdagings wat deur statutêre formaliteite gestel word, suksesvol wil hanteer. Die proefskrif oorweeg dan meer spesifieke aspekte van formaliteite, insluitende die verskil tussen wesenlike en nie-wesenlike bedinge. Dit toon ook dat die huidige opvatting van statutêre formaliteite redelik buigsaam is en tot ‘n bevinding van geldigheid lei waar dit redelikerwys moontlik is. Gevalle van onbenoemde of versweë prinsipale bied egter besondere uitdagings in hierdie verband en die moontlikheid word ondersoek om ‘n meer konsekwente, maar tegelyk teoreties-gefundeerde benadering te volg. ‘n Bespreking van wat op skrif moet wees, en met watter mate van sekerheid, behels noodwendig ‘n oorweging van die mate waarin ekstrinsieke getuienis toelaatbaar is. Die interaksie tussen formaliteite en die parol evidence-reël word derhalwe ondersoek. Spesiale aandag word bestee aan inlywing deur verwysing. Na oorweging van die benadering in gemeenregtelike stelsels, word die gevolgtrekking bereik dat ruimte bestaan vir ontwikkeling op hierdie gebied, veral met betrekking tot ‘n voldoende verwysing na ‘n ander dokument. Rektifikasie word ook breedvoerig hanteer, vanweë die eiesoortige benadering in die Suid-Afrikaanse reg. Waar formaliteite konstitutief van aard is, sal ‘n Suid-Afrikaanse hof eers vasstel dat ‘n ooreenkoms ex facie die dokument aan die formaliteite voldoen, voordat dit sal oorweeg of rektifikasie moontlik is. ‘n Ontleding van sivielregtelike en gemeenregtelike beslissings dui daarop dat die Suid-Afrikaanse benadering op ‘n wanbegrip van die doel van rektifikasie gebaseer is. Dit lei tot die verdere gevolgtrekking dat die vereiste van ex facie nakoming as ‘n afsonderlike stap afgeskaf behoort te word en dat ‘n hof eerder moet oorweeg of die toestaan van ‘n eis vir rektifikasie die oogmerke van die formaliteite in die algemeen sou verydel. Laastens word aandag geskenk aan die remedies beskikbaar aan ‘n party wat presteer ingevolge ‘n ooreenkoms wat nietig is weens nie-nakoming van formaliteite, asook die effek van volle prestasie kragtens so ‘n ooreenkoms. In eersgenoemde geval beperk die Suid-Afrikaanse reg daardie party tot ‘n verrykingseis. ‘n Ondersoek van die remedies beskikbaar in ander regstelsels toon dat dit onnodig beperkend is. Dit word aangevoer dat Suid-Afrikaanse howe die uitsluiting van estoppel in hierdie konteks moet heroorweeg, veral in gevalle waar een party se gewetenlose optrede daartoe lei dat die ander party staat maak op die formeel-gebrekkige ooreenkoms. In gevalle van volledige prestasie is daar geen remedies beskikbaar nie, maar dit word aangevoer dat ‘n onderskeid getref moet word tussen wedersydse en eensydige prestasies.

Thesis (LLM (Private Law))--University of Stellenbosch, 2010. / ENGLISH ABSTRACT: The most important innovations of the revised German Wohnunungseigentumsgesetz which came into force on 1 July of 2007, concern the possiblity to amend parts of the constitution of the scheme (Gemeinschaftsordnung) by majority instead of unanimous resolution; the extension of the decision-making competence of sectional owners; the easier and more appropriate distinction between maintenance of and luxurious and non-luxurious improvements to the common property; the recognition that the body corporate has legal capacity to act in certain circumstances; the increase in the functions and powers of the professional manager (Verwalter); and the replacement of the procedure for non-contentious matters for the settlement of disputes by the ordinary civil court procedure. These predominantly valuable innovations raise the question in how far South African law could benefit from these amendments, and whether they could be used as a model for solving some of the unsatisfactory aspects of the South African sectional title law. The revised Wohnungseigentumsgesetz now allows apartment owners to amend more provisions of the constitution by majority resolution. The harsh unanimity principle is in many contexts replaced by the majority principle and individual apartment owners are allowed to request an amendment of certain provisions of the constitution for important reasons. The Sectional Titles Act and the model management and conduct rules regulate the relationship between sectional owners in South Africa. Both the developer and the body corporate have the authority to supplement or amend the existing model rules by special rules. However, in comparison with the revised Wohnungseigentumsgesetz the management and conduct rules can only be amended by a unanimous or special resolution for management and conduct rules respectively and an individual owner is not allowed to request an amendment of a model rule on account of the unfair consequences suffered by him or her. An important advantage of the revised Wohnungseigentumsgesetz in comparison with section 32(4) of the Sectional Titles Act is furthermore that no written consent is required from the sectional owner who is adversely affected by an amendment of certain aspects of the participation quota. This requirement causes many problems. First, the circumstances in which an owner can be considered adversely affected have not been judicially determined. Second, the South African requirement is out of step with modern conditions, which witness the number of larger schemes increasing, because it allows one owner to block objectively necessary resolutions of the body corporate. The provision requiring the written consent of the adversely affected owner should therfore be repealed. The same applies to the general requirements for carrying out maintenance of and improvements to the common property. On closer analysis it becomes clear that the management rules contain no criteria to distinguish between maintenance and improvement measures or between luxurious and non-luxurious improvements. In final analysis these distinctions seem to depend on subjective rather than on objective criteria. By contrast the revised Wohnungseigentumsgesetz contains a clear objective distinction between the four categories of improvements to the common property. / GERMAN ABSTRACT: Seit dem 1. Juli 2007 gilt in Deutschland ein novelliertes Wohnungseigentumsgesetz. Die wichtigsten Neuerungen betreffen die Ermöglichung von Änderungen der Gemeinschaftsordnung nicht nur durch einstimmigen Beschluss der Wohnungseigentümer, die Erweiterung der Beschlusskompetenzen der Wohnungseigentümer, die Erleichterung der Durchführung baulicher Maßnahmen, die Gestaltung der Teilrechtsfähigkeit der Eigentümergemeinschaft und die Festlegung der erweiterten Rechte und Pflichten des Verwalters sowie die Überleitung des Verfahrens der freiwilligen Gerichtsbarkeit in die Zivilprozessordnung. Die überwiegende Zahl der grundsätzlich zu begrüßenden Neuregelungen gibt auch für das südafrikanische Recht wertvolle Denkanstöße zu der Frage, ob eine Novellierung des Sectional Titles Act im Sinne der Neuregelungen des WEG eine Möglichkeit wäre, bestehende „Ungereimtheiten“ und Probleme zwischen den Wohnungseigentümern und im Wohnungseigentumskomplex in Südafrika besser lösen zu können. Im neuen novellierten WEG sind mehr als bislang Mehrheitsentscheidungen der Wohnungseigentümer zulässig. Statt des starren Einstimmigkeitsprinzips gilt nun oftmals das Mehrheitsprinzip. Zudem ist es auch dem einzelnen Wohnungseigentümer möglich, eine Änderung einer Vereinbarung zu verlangen, sofern ein Festhalten an einer geltenden Regelung aus schwerwiegenden Gründen unter Berücksichtigung aller Umstände des Einzelfalles, unbillig erscheint. Gesetzliche Regelungen, welche das Gemeinschaftsverhältnis in Südafrika ordnen, sind im Sectional Titles Act selbst und in den management und conduct rules der Annexure 8 und 9 des Sectional Titles Act enthalten. Zudem hat sowohl der developer als auch die Wohnungseigentümergemeinschaft (body corporate) die Befugnis, die Rechte, Pflichten und Nutzungsrechte der Wohnungseigentümer in sogenannten „special rules“ selbst festzulegen. Im Vergleich zu den Regelungen des novellierten WEG ist es für Wohnungseigentümer in Südafrika jedoch schwerer, eine Änderung solcher Regelungen herbeizuführen. Wollen die Wohnungseigentümer von den Regelungen der management oder conduct Rules abweichen, können sie dies bezüglich der management rules nur durch einheitlichen Beschluss (resolution) und hinsichtlich der conduct rules mittels eines Beschlusses mit 75%er Mehrheit (special resolution). Ein individueller Anspruch des einzelnen Wohnungseigentümers auf Änderung, Ergänzung oder Ersetzung der rules bei Unbilligkeit besteht nicht. Ein gewichtiger Vorteil der Neuregelung des § 16 Abs. 3 WEG im Vergleich zu Artikel 32(4) des Sectional Titles Act ist zudem, dass es in Deutschland keiner schriftlichen Zustimmung des von der Entscheidung negativ betroffenen Wohnungseigentümers bedarf. Eine Änderung der participation quota hinsichtlich des Kostenverteilungsschlüssels ist nur möglich, wenn ein von der Entscheidung negativ betroffener Wohnungseigentümer seine schriftliche Zustimmung erteilt. Wann eine solche negative Betroffenheit („adversely affected“) letztlich vorliegt, ist zum einen nicht abschließend geklärt. Zum anderen ist gerade unter der Prämisse immer größerer werdender sectional titles schemes nicht mehr zeitgemäß, einem einzelnen Wohnungseigentümer die Möglichkeit zu geben, objektiv notwendige Entscheidungen der body corporate zu blockieren. Das Erfordernis der Zustimmungsbedürftigkeit eines negativ betroffenen Wohnungseigentümers sollte daher aufgegeben werden. Gleiches gilt für die generelle Zulässigkeit von baulichen Veränderungen. Bei genauerer Analyse des südafrikanischen Rechts wird zudem klar, dass in den Management Rules nicht definiert ist, was unter Verbesserungen, d.h. unter „improvements to the common property“ zu verstehen ist oder wie im Einzelfall zwischen luxuriösen und nicht-luxuriösen Aufwendungen zu unterscheiden ist, da es letztlich von der subjektiven Betrachtungsweise Einzelner abhängt. Das novellierte WEG enthält im Vergleich dazu eine klarere objektive Begriffsabgrenzung der vier Kategorien baulicher Maßnahmen. / AFRIKAANSE OPSOMMING: Die belangrikste veranderings aangebring deur die wysiging van die Duitse Wohnunungseigentumsgesetz wat op 1Julie 2007 in werking getree het, is die volgende: die wysiging van die reëls van die skema (Gemeinschaftsordnung) deur middel van ‘n meerderheidsbesluit in plaas van ‘n eenparige besluit; die uitbreiding van die besluitnemingsbevoegdhede van deeleienaars, die helder en meer gepaste vereistes vir die aanbring van verbeterings aan die gemeenskaplike eiendom, die erkenning van die regsbevoegdheid van die regspersoon in sekere gevalle, die uitbreiding van die bevoegdhede van die professionele bestuurder en die vervanging van die informele geskilbeslegtingsprosedure deur die gewone hofprosedure. Hierdie veranderinge laat die vraag ontstaan in hoeverre die Suid-Afrikaanse reg voordeel kan trek uit hierdie wysigings en in hoeverre die veranderings as model kan dien vir wysiging van onbevredigende aspekte van die Wet op Deeltitels. Die gewysigde Wohnunungseigentumsgesetz laat deeleienaars tans toe om meer bepalings van die model reëls deur meerderheidsbesluit te verander. Die streng eenparigheidsbeginsel word in meerdere verbande deur die meerderheidsbeginsel vervang en deeleienaars word in sekere gevalle selfs toegelaat om aansoek te doen vir die wysiging van sommige bepalings op grond van ‘n geldige rede. Die Wet op Deeltitels en die model bestuurs- en gedragsreëls reguleer die regsverhouding tussen deeleienaars. In teenstelling met die gewysidge Duitse wet kan die die regspersoon die bestuursreëls slegs deur middel van ‘n eenparige besluit en die gedragsreëls deur middel van ‘n spesiale besluit verander en ‘n deeleienaar word nie toegelaat om ‘n verandering van die reëls aan te vra op grond van onregverdige benadeling nie. ‘n Belangrike voordeel van die gewysigde Duitse wet in vergelyking met artikel 32(4) van die Wet op Deeltitels is verder dat die skriftelike toestemming van ‘n deeleienaar wat deur die wysiging van sekere aspekte van die deelnemingkwota benadeel word, nie verkry hoef te word nie. Dit is ‘n groot verbetering. Eerstens is dit moeilik om te bepaal in watter omstandighede ‘n deeleienaar se regte deur die wysiging van die deelnemingskwota benadeel word. Tweedens is die Suid-Afrikaanse bepaling uit pas met moderne ontwikkelings waar ‘n deeleienaar in groot deeltitleontwikkelings toegelaat word om objektief redelike besluite van die regspersoon te blokkeer. Hierdie bepaling van die Wet op Deeltitels moet dus herroep word. Dieselfde geld vir die vereistes met betrekking tot die onderhoud van en verbeterings aan die gemeenskaplike eiendom in die Suid-Afrikaanse wetgewing. Op die keper beskou bevat die bestuursreëls geen geskikte riglyne om tussen die onderhoud van, en luukse en nieluukse verbeterings aan die gemeenskaplike eiendom te onderskei nie. Die onderskeiding berus oënskynlik op subjektiewe eerder as objektiewe oorwegings. Daarenteen bevat die gewysigde Duitse Wet helder, objektiewe kriteria om onderhoud en vier soorte verbeterings aan die gemeenskaplike eiendom te onderskei.

Thesis (LLM)--Stellenbosch University, 2012. / Includes bibliography / ENGLISH ABSTRACT: The South African land question presents complex legal and social challenges. The legal aspects of land are inextricably linked to other socio-economic aspects, such as access to housing, healthcare, water and social security. The Constitution provides for land reform in the property clause - section 25. This clause, while seeking to redress the colonial land dispossessions, by means of a tripartite land reform programme, also protects the property rights of all. The different legs of the land reform programme are redistribution, which is aimed at enabling citizens to access land on an equitable basis; restitution, which sets out to restore property rights or grant equitable redress to those dispossessed of land as a result of past racially discriminatory laws or practices and finally tenure reform. Tenure reform is premised on transforming the landholding system of those with legally insecure tenure as a result of past racially discriminatory laws or practices or granting comparable redress. The primary focus of this thesis is on tenure security for black rural women in South Africa, while using the Namibian experience with regard of the same group as a comparison. Historically, before colonialism, landholding was governed by the customary law of the various tribes in South Africa. This landholding system underwent extensive change through the colonial era that ultimately led to a fragmented and disproportionate distribution of land based on race, with insecure land rights particularly in rural areas, where women are the majority. With the dawn of the Constitutional era, South Africa embarked upon a social justice project, based on a supreme Constitution, embodying human dignity, equality, non-racialism, accountability and the rule of law. Land reform forms part of the social project and is governed by the Constitution and influenced by both the civil and customary law. With the South African tenure context, policy documents, legislation and case law will be analysed. In this process the role of the stakeholders and other related factors, for example customary practices are also considered. The analysis indicates that case law has played a significant part in addressing women’s plight with regard to equality, tenure reform and abolishing suppressive legislative provisions and practices. It is furthermore clear that the different categories of women are affected differently by the overarching tenure and other related measures. For a legal comparative study, Namibia was chosen for the following reasons: (a) both South Africa and Namibia have a shared colonial and apartheid background; (b) both countries have a Constitutional foundation incorporating human rights and equality; and (c) both countries have embarked on land reform programmes. However, contrary to the South African position, both the Namibian Constitution and its National Land Policy are more gender-specific. Tenure reform is an on-going process in Namibia in terms of which specific categories of women have benefitted lately. To that end the gender inclined approach may be of specific value for the South African situation, in general, but in particular concerning black rural women. Consequently, particular recommendations, linked to the specific categories of women, are finally provided for the South African position, in light of the Namibian experience. / AFRIKAANSE OPSOMMING: Die Suid-Afrikaanse grondkwessie beliggaam ingewikkelde regs- en sosiale uitdagings. Die regsaspekte wat verband hou met grond is ook onlosmaaklik gekoppel aan sosio-ekonomiese kwessies, soos byvoorbeeld toegang to behuising, gesondheidsdienste, water en sosiale sekuriteit. Die Grondwet maak vir grondhervorming in die eiendomsklousule, artikel 25, voorsiening. Die eiendomsklousule beoog om koloniale grondontnemings (deur ‘n drie-ledige oorhoofse grondhervormingsprogram) aan te spreek en terselfdertyd eiendomsregte te beskerm. Die oorhoofse grondhervormingsprogram bestaan uit herverdeling, waarmee billike toegang tot grond vir alle burgers bewerkstellig word; restitusie, waarvolgens herstel (of ander billike vergoeding) vir persone en gemeenskappe wat grond en regte as gevolg van rasdiskriminerende maatreëls verloor het, bewerkstellig word en laastens grondbeheerhervorming. Grondbeheerhervorming behels die aanpas of opgradeer van grondbeheervorme (of die betaal van billike vergoeding) in gevalle waar regte onseker (of swak) is weens rasdiskriminerende maatreëls en praktyke van die verlede. Die hooffokus van die tesis is op die regsekerheid (al dan nie) van grondbeheer van swart landelike vrouens in Suid- Afrika, met die Namibiese ervaring as regsvergelykende komponent. Histories, voordat kolonialisme ingetree het, was grondbeheer deur die tradisionele inheemse reg van die verskillende gemeenskappe in Suid-Afrika gereguleer. Hierdie grondbeheersisteme het grootskaalse verandering gedurende die koloniale tydperk ondergaan. Dit het eindelik tot ‘n rasgebaseerde, gefragmenteerde sisteem gelei waarvan die verdeling van grond disproporsioneel was en die grondbeheervorme regsonseker, veral in die landelike gebiede waar vrouens die meerderheid van die bevolking uitmaak. Toe die grondwetlike era in Suid-Afrika aanbreek, is daar met ‘n sosiale geregtigheidprojek (heropbou en ontwikkeling) begin. Hierdie benadering is op die Grondwet gefundeer waarin menswaardigheid, gelykheid, nie-rassigheid, rekenskap en regsorde beliggaam is. Grondhervorming vorm deel van die oorhoofse projek en word deur die Grondwet bestuur en deur beide die nasionale en die Inheems reg beïnvloed. Met betrekking tot die Suid-Afrikaanse grondbeheeristeem word beleidsdokumente, wetgewing en regspraak geanaliseer. In hierdie proses word die rol van belanghebbendes en ander verwante aspekte, soos byvoorbeeld Inheemse partyke, ook oorweeg. Die analise dui aan dat dit veral ontwikkelings in regspraak is wat ‘n groot bydrae gelewer het om vrouens se stryd om gelykheid en sekerheid van grondbeheer te bevorder en wat gelei het tot die afskaffing van onderdrukkende wetgewende maatreëls en praktyke. Dit is verder ook duidelik dat verskillende kategorieë van vrouens verskillend deur die oorhoofse grondbeheer- en ander verwante maatreëls, geaffekteer word. Namibië is vir die regsvergelykende analise geïdentifiseer omdat (a) beide Suid- Afrika en Namibië ‘n koloniale en apartheidsgeskiedenis deel; (b) beide jurisdiksies ‘n grondwetlike basis het waarin menseregte en gelykheid beliggaam word; en (c) beide lande grondhervormingsprogramme van stapel gestuur het. In teenstelling met die Suid-Afrikaanse benadering, is die Namibiese Grondwet en die nasionale grondbeleid egter meer geslag-spesifiek. Grondbeheerhervorming in Namibië is ‘n aaneenlopende proses waaruit veral sekere kategorieë vrouens onlangs voordeel getrek het. Om daardie rede mag die geslag-spesifke benadering wat in Namibië gevolg word vir Suid-Afrika ook van waarde wees, nie net in die algemeen by grondbeheer nie, maar spesifiek ook met betrekking tot swart landelike vroue. In die lig van die Namibiese ervaring word daar ten slotte spesifieke aanbevelings tot die Suid-Afrikaanse sisteem, gekoppel aan bepaalde kategorieë van vroue, gemaak.

<p>The purpose of this thesis is to describe and analyse the significance of economic thinking and arguments in the treatment of licence agreements in EC competition law. A central question is to what degree the concept of competition in EC law reflects an economically realistic approach to competition. The study also investigates to what degree the economic functioning of intellectual property is considered in competition regulation and how much the economic functioning of the licence agreement is considered. The investigation mainly consists of a comparative analysis of EC competition law and American antitrust law concerning the economic arguments and their importance. The treatment of territorial restrictions, field of use restrictions, quantity clauses, tie-outs, tie-ins, grant back, no-challenge clauses and price restrictions are of special interest here. </p><p>This study shows that an economically realistic view of competition has influenced current EC competition law, especially in the Technology Transfer Block Exemption Regulation (TTBER). Exceptions from this development in the EC law are mainly due to the goal of integration of the common market. Territorial restrictions are strictly regulated in the TTBER even when the parties’ market shares are below the market thresholds defined in the regulation.</p><p>The function of intellectual property rights are not much considered in EC competition law but there are general remarks about the economic functioning of patents in the Guidelines for the TTBER. However, it is difficult to find evidence for economic reasoning about patents in the formation of concrete rules. On the contrary, patents are weakened by the widened concept of exhaustion presented in the Guidelines.</p><p>The economic functioning of the licence agreement is considered in the rules of TTBER and the economic arguments for clauses which create incentives for making investments or give the possibility of control are acknowledged. However, the free riding argument has a weak position when applied to territorial restrictions, which are more formalistically regulated.</p><p>The EC competition law has become more similar to American antitrust law. The decisive difference consists in the judicial treatment of territorial restrictions, where the goal of integration is still of central importance in EC law.</p>

The General civil code and the private law in Slovakia in the period 1918 - 1938 (comparison of the property rights and law of obligations) Abstract The aim of my thesis is to describe the comparison between The General civil code and the private law in Slovakia in the period 1918 - 1938. The comparison focuses on the property rights and law of obligations. The reason for my research is that nobody has dealt with the topic of this thesis. This thesis consists of the eight chapters, each of them analyzes the different field of thesis. Chapter One consists of three parts and deals with The General civil code. Part One explains the origin of The General civil code. Part Two describes the content of The General civil code and part Three is about development of The General civil code from 1811 to 1950. Chapter Two contains information about private law in Slovakia. Chapter Two is subdivided into five parts, which focuses on the source of law in Slovakia. The attempt of unification of private law in The Czechoslovakian republic is examined in chapter Three. This chapter is composed of two parts. Part One analyzes the unification of the private law in The Czechoslovakian republic and part Two describes the development of The bill, which implements the new General civil code. Chapter Four is about the definition of...