A síndrome dos ovários policísticos (SOP) é um distúrbio endócrino caracterizado por anovulação crônica e hiperandrogenismo. Modelos animais em ratas são usados para estudar processos complexos da SOP. As procineticinas (PROKs) são proteínas relacionadas a apoptose, proliferação vascular e regulação do sistema reprodutor. No entanto, seu padrão de expressão e função não são bem conhecidos no ovário com SOP. Este estudo propõe-se a identificar e localizar as PROKs e seus receptores nos ovários de ratas com SOP experimental. Foram utilizadas 33 ratas Wistar divididas em 3 grupos que receberam, entre o 1º e o 3º dia de vida, uma única injeção por via subcutânea de: propionato de testosterona (1,25 mg/0,1 mL, GT, n=12); benzoato de estradiol (0,5 mg/0,1 mL, GE, n=11) e óleo de oliva (0,1 mL, GC, n=10). Aos 90-95 dias de idade, os animais foram eutanaziados e os ovários removidos para avaliação da expressão gênica e proteica das procineticinas 1 e 2 e seus receptores por qRT-PCR e imunoistoquímica. A expressão dos genes Prok1 e Prok2 nos ovários de ratas do GT foi maior quando comparado ao GC (p=0,0157 e p=0,0354). Houve maior expressão da proteína PROK2 em células da teca interna (p=0,0049) e nas células intersticiais (p=0,0068) de folículos antrais nos ovários de ratas do GT em relação ao GC. PROK2 foi mais expressa em células da granulosa dos folículos pré-antrais comparado aos folículos antrais no GT (p=0,0098). Concluímos que as procineticinas estão expressas no ovário do modelo estudado em diferentes padrões, e que a PROK2 parece exibir maior expressão no grupo testosterona. Por apresentar papéis relevantes no controle do eixo hipotálamo-hipófise-gonadal, acreditamos que esses resultados podem abrir uma linha de investigação sobre o papel dessa proteína na fisiopatologia da síndrome / Polycystic ovary syndrome (PCOS) is an endocrine disorder characterized by chronic anovulation and hyperandrogenism. Animal models have been used to study PCOS pathophysiology. Prokineticins (PROKs) are proteins with functions related to apoptosis, vascular proliferation and reproductive physiology. However, their expression patterns and functions are unknown in the PCOS ovary. The aim of this study is to identify and localize the PROKs and their receptors in PCOS rat models induced by testosterone or estradiol. Thirty-three female Wistar rats aged between 1-3 days were sorted into three groups according to the compounds injected subcutaneously: Testosterone propionate (1.25 mg / 0.1 mL, TG, n = 12); Estradiol benzoate (0.5 mg / 0.1 mL, EG, n = 11) and olive oil (0.1 mL, CG, n = 10). At 90-95 days of age, the animals were euthanized and the ovaries removed for evaluation of prokineticins 1 and 2 and their receptors by qRT-PCR and immunohistochemistry. The expression of the genes Prok1 and Prok2 in the ovaries was higher in TG compared to CG (p=0.0157 and p=0.0345). There was higher expression of PROK2 in theca interna (p=0.0049) and interstitial cells (p=0.0068) of antral follicles in the ovaries of TG vs CG; PROK2 was higher expressed in the granulosa cells of the preantral follicles compared to the antral follicles in the TG (p=0.0098). We conclude that prokineticins are expressed in the ovary of the animal model studied and they present different patterns, PROK2 seems to exhibit higher expression in the testosterone group. Due important roles in the control of the hypothalamicpituitary- gonadal axis, we believe that these results may open a line of investigation about the role of this protein in the pathophysiology of the syndrome

A síndrome dos ovários policísticos (SOP) é um distúrbio endócrino caracterizado por anovulação crônica e hiperandrogenismo. Modelos animais em ratas são usados para estudar processos complexos da SOP. As procineticinas (PROKs) são proteínas relacionadas a apoptose, proliferação vascular e regulação do sistema reprodutor. No entanto, seu padrão de expressão e função não são bem conhecidos no ovário com SOP. Este estudo propõe-se a identificar e localizar as PROKs e seus receptores nos ovários de ratas com SOP experimental. Foram utilizadas 33 ratas Wistar divididas em 3 grupos que receberam, entre o 1º e o 3º dia de vida, uma única injeção por via subcutânea de: propionato de testosterona (1,25 mg/0,1 mL, GT, n=12); benzoato de estradiol (0,5 mg/0,1 mL, GE, n=11) e óleo de oliva (0,1 mL, GC, n=10). Aos 90-95 dias de idade, os animais foram eutanaziados e os ovários removidos para avaliação da expressão gênica e proteica das procineticinas 1 e 2 e seus receptores por qRT-PCR e imunoistoquímica. A expressão dos genes Prok1 e Prok2 nos ovários de ratas do GT foi maior quando comparado ao GC (p=0,0157 e p=0,0354). Houve maior expressão da proteína PROK2 em células da teca interna (p=0,0049) e nas células intersticiais (p=0,0068) de folículos antrais nos ovários de ratas do GT em relação ao GC. PROK2 foi mais expressa em células da granulosa dos folículos pré-antrais comparado aos folículos antrais no GT (p=0,0098). Concluímos que as procineticinas estão expressas no ovário do modelo estudado em diferentes padrões, e que a PROK2 parece exibir maior expressão no grupo testosterona. Por apresentar papéis relevantes no controle do eixo hipotálamo-hipófise-gonadal, acreditamos que esses resultados podem abrir uma linha de investigação sobre o papel dessa proteína na fisiopatologia da síndrome / Polycystic ovary syndrome (PCOS) is an endocrine disorder characterized by chronic anovulation and hyperandrogenism. Animal models have been used to study PCOS pathophysiology. Prokineticins (PROKs) are proteins with functions related to apoptosis, vascular proliferation and reproductive physiology. However, their expression patterns and functions are unknown in the PCOS ovary. The aim of this study is to identify and localize the PROKs and their receptors in PCOS rat models induced by testosterone or estradiol. Thirty-three female Wistar rats aged between 1-3 days were sorted into three groups according to the compounds injected subcutaneously: Testosterone propionate (1.25 mg / 0.1 mL, TG, n = 12); Estradiol benzoate (0.5 mg / 0.1 mL, EG, n = 11) and olive oil (0.1 mL, CG, n = 10). At 90-95 days of age, the animals were euthanized and the ovaries removed for evaluation of prokineticins 1 and 2 and their receptors by qRT-PCR and immunohistochemistry. The expression of the genes Prok1 and Prok2 in the ovaries was higher in TG compared to CG (p=0.0157 and p=0.0345). There was higher expression of PROK2 in theca interna (p=0.0049) and interstitial cells (p=0.0068) of antral follicles in the ovaries of TG vs CG; PROK2 was higher expressed in the granulosa cells of the preantral follicles compared to the antral follicles in the TG (p=0.0098). We conclude that prokineticins are expressed in the ovary of the animal model studied and they present different patterns, PROK2 seems to exhibit higher expression in the testosterone group. Due important roles in the control of the hypothalamicpituitary- gonadal axis, we believe that these results may open a line of investigation about the role of this protein in the pathophysiology of the syndrome

O sistema da procineticina desempenha um papel importante na migração dos neurônios secretores de GnRH e na neurogênese do bulbo olfatório. Camundongos com ablação dos genes que codificam a procineticina 2 (PROK2) e seu receptor (PROKR2) apresentaram fenótipos semelhantes ao da síndrome de Kallmann descrita em humanos. Mutações inativadoras nos genes PROK2 e PROKR2 foram identificadas em pacientes com hipogonadismo hipogonadotrófico isolado. Com base nestes achados, investigamos a presença de alterações estruturais nos genes PROK2 e PROKR2 em 107 pacientes brasileiros (63 com síndrome de Kallmann e 47 com hipogonadismo hipogonadotrófico isolado normósmico). Cem indivíduos brasileiros que relataram desenvolvimento puberal normal foram utilizados como grupo controle. As regiões codificadoras dos genes PROK2 e PROKR2 foram amplificadas utilizando-se oligonucleotídeos intrônicos específicos, seguida de purificação enzimática e sequenciamento automático. Duas mutações no gene PROK2 foram identificadas: a mutação p.G100fsX121 em homozigose presente em dois irmãos com síndrome de Kallmann; e a mutação p.I55fsX56 em heterozigose identiificada em um paciente com HHIn. Quatro mutações foram identificadas no gene PROKR2 (p.R80C, p.Y140X, p.L173R e p.R268C) em cinco pacientes com síndrome de Kallmann e um paciente com HHIn. Essas mutações não foram encontradas no grupo controle. As mutações do tipo missense, p.R80C, p.L173R e p.R268C foram identificadas em heterozigose. Mutações nos genes FGFR1, GnRHR, KiSS-1 e GPR54 foram excluídas nesses pacientes. O paciente portador da mutação p.R268C do PROKR2 apresentou deleção dos exons 1 e 2 do gene KAL1. Adicionalmente, as mutações p.R80C e p.R268C foram identificadas em heterozigose em parentes de primeiro grau assintomáticos dos casos índices. A nova mutação p.Y140X do PROKR2, única alteração em homozigose, foi identificada em um paciente com micropênis, criptorquidia bilateral, anosmia e palato ogival. Os pais deste paciente eram portadores da mutação p.Y140X em heterozigose e relataram desenvolvimento puberal normal e ausência de anormalidades olfatórias. Estudos in vitro da nova mutação p.R80C localizada na primeira alça intracelular demonstraram que o acúmulo de fofatidil-inositol (IP), assim como a ativação da via da MAPK foram significativamente afetadas em células transfectadas com o receptor mutado em relação ao receptor selvagem, indicando que a mutação p.R80C determina uma menor atividade do receptor. Avaliação da expressão por Western blot mostrou uma diminuição na expressão do receptor mutado R80C e uma maior expressão de receptores imaturos. Esses achados sugeriram o papel crítico da arginina localizada na posição 80 na atividade normal do receptor. Em conclusão, expandimos o repertório de mutações deletérias nos genes PROK2 e PROKR2 em pacientes com hipogonadismo hipogonadotrófico isolado. A haploinsuficiência do PROKR2 não foi suficiente para causar síndrome de Kallmann ou HHIn, entretanto mutações inativadoras em homozigose nos genes PROK2 e PROKR2 foram responsáveis pelo fenótipo reprodutivo e olfatório anormal, em concordância com os estudos prévios de ablação gênica em modelos animais. Arginina localizada na posição 80 do PROKR2 desempenha um papel crucial na adequada maturação do receptor / Physiological activation of the prokineticin pathway has a critical role in olfactory bulb morphogenesis and GnRH secretion. Knock-out mice for genes that encode prokineticin 2 (PROK2) and the prokineticin receptor 2 (PROKR2) exhibited a phenotype similar to the Kallmann syndrome (KS). Inactivating mutations in PROK2 and PROKR2 have been identified in patients with isolated hypogonadotropic hypogonadism. Based on these findings, we investigated the presence of inactivating mutations of the genes PROK2 and PROKR2 in Brazilian patients with isolated hypogonadotropic hypogonadism associated or not with olfactory abnormalities and performed in vitro studies of the new identified mutations. We studied 107 patients with HH (63 with Kallmann syndrome and 44 with normosmic HH) and 100 control individuals. The coding regions of PROK2 and PROKR2 were amplified by polymerase chain reaction followed by enzymatic purification and direct automatic sequencing. In PROK2, two known frameshift mutations were identified. Two brothers with Kallmann syndrome harbored the homozygous p.G100fsX121 mutation, whereas one male with normosmic HH harbored the heterozygous p.I55fsX56 mutation. In PROKR2, four distinct mutations (p.R80C, p.Y140X, p.L173R and p.R268C) were identified in five patients with Kallmann syndrome and in one patient with normosmic HH. These mutations were not found in the control group. The p.R80C and p.R268C missense mutations were identified in heterozygous state in the HH patients and in their asymptomatic first-degree relatives. The p.L173R was also identified in heterozygous state. In addition, no mutations of FGFR1, GnRHR, KiSS-1 or GPR54 were identified in these patients. The patient with the PROKR2 mutation p.R268C also has a deletion of the exon 1 and 2 in the gene KAL1. Notably, the new nonsense mutation (p.Y140X) was identified in homozygous state in an anosmic boy with micropenis, bilateral cryptorchidism and high-arched palate. His asymptomatic parents were heterozygous for this severe defect. In vitro studies of the new mutation, p.R80C, were performed in order to access the mechanism by which this mutation could affect the activity of the PROKR2. In vitro studies showed that the amount of fofatidil-inositol (PI) and the activation of MAPK were significantly lower in cells transfected with the R80C mutant receptor than in cells transfected with the wild receptor, indicating that this variant is a loss-of-function mutation. Binding studies and Western blot showed a reduction in the expression levels of the receptor in the plasma membrane and in whole cell, respectively. Additionally, Western blot analysis of R80C PROKR2 revealed an additional smaller molecular weight band that represents the presence of immature unglycosylated receptors. The arginine 80 in ICL1 is important for post-translational processing of PROKR2. In conclusion, we expanded the repertoire of PROK2 and PROKR2 mutations in patients with HH and showed that PROKR2 haploinsufficiency is not sufficient to cause Kallmann syndrome or normosmic HH, whereas homozygous loss-of-function mutations either in PROK2 or PROKR2 are sufficient to cause disease phenotype, in accordance with the Prokr2 and Prok2 knockout mouse models. In vitro studies suggested that the arginine located at position 80 of the receptor seems to play an important role in the receptor function

O sistema da procineticina desempenha um papel importante na migração dos neurônios secretores de GnRH e na neurogênese do bulbo olfatório. Camundongos com ablação dos genes que codificam a procineticina 2 (PROK2) e seu receptor (PROKR2) apresentaram fenótipos semelhantes ao da síndrome de Kallmann descrita em humanos. Mutações inativadoras nos genes PROK2 e PROKR2 foram identificadas em pacientes com hipogonadismo hipogonadotrófico isolado. Com base nestes achados, investigamos a presença de alterações estruturais nos genes PROK2 e PROKR2 em 107 pacientes brasileiros (63 com síndrome de Kallmann e 47 com hipogonadismo hipogonadotrófico isolado normósmico). Cem indivíduos brasileiros que relataram desenvolvimento puberal normal foram utilizados como grupo controle. As regiões codificadoras dos genes PROK2 e PROKR2 foram amplificadas utilizando-se oligonucleotídeos intrônicos específicos, seguida de purificação enzimática e sequenciamento automático. Duas mutações no gene PROK2 foram identificadas: a mutação p.G100fsX121 em homozigose presente em dois irmãos com síndrome de Kallmann; e a mutação p.I55fsX56 em heterozigose identiificada em um paciente com HHIn. Quatro mutações foram identificadas no gene PROKR2 (p.R80C, p.Y140X, p.L173R e p.R268C) em cinco pacientes com síndrome de Kallmann e um paciente com HHIn. Essas mutações não foram encontradas no grupo controle. As mutações do tipo missense, p.R80C, p.L173R e p.R268C foram identificadas em heterozigose. Mutações nos genes FGFR1, GnRHR, KiSS-1 e GPR54 foram excluídas nesses pacientes. O paciente portador da mutação p.R268C do PROKR2 apresentou deleção dos exons 1 e 2 do gene KAL1. Adicionalmente, as mutações p.R80C e p.R268C foram identificadas em heterozigose em parentes de primeiro grau assintomáticos dos casos índices. A nova mutação p.Y140X do PROKR2, única alteração em homozigose, foi identificada em um paciente com micropênis, criptorquidia bilateral, anosmia e palato ogival. Os pais deste paciente eram portadores da mutação p.Y140X em heterozigose e relataram desenvolvimento puberal normal e ausência de anormalidades olfatórias. Estudos in vitro da nova mutação p.R80C localizada na primeira alça intracelular demonstraram que o acúmulo de fofatidil-inositol (IP), assim como a ativação da via da MAPK foram significativamente afetadas em células transfectadas com o receptor mutado em relação ao receptor selvagem, indicando que a mutação p.R80C determina uma menor atividade do receptor. Avaliação da expressão por Western blot mostrou uma diminuição na expressão do receptor mutado R80C e uma maior expressão de receptores imaturos. Esses achados sugeriram o papel crítico da arginina localizada na posição 80 na atividade normal do receptor. Em conclusão, expandimos o repertório de mutações deletérias nos genes PROK2 e PROKR2 em pacientes com hipogonadismo hipogonadotrófico isolado. A haploinsuficiência do PROKR2 não foi suficiente para causar síndrome de Kallmann ou HHIn, entretanto mutações inativadoras em homozigose nos genes PROK2 e PROKR2 foram responsáveis pelo fenótipo reprodutivo e olfatório anormal, em concordância com os estudos prévios de ablação gênica em modelos animais. Arginina localizada na posição 80 do PROKR2 desempenha um papel crucial na adequada maturação do receptor / Physiological activation of the prokineticin pathway has a critical role in olfactory bulb morphogenesis and GnRH secretion. Knock-out mice for genes that encode prokineticin 2 (PROK2) and the prokineticin receptor 2 (PROKR2) exhibited a phenotype similar to the Kallmann syndrome (KS). Inactivating mutations in PROK2 and PROKR2 have been identified in patients with isolated hypogonadotropic hypogonadism. Based on these findings, we investigated the presence of inactivating mutations of the genes PROK2 and PROKR2 in Brazilian patients with isolated hypogonadotropic hypogonadism associated or not with olfactory abnormalities and performed in vitro studies of the new identified mutations. We studied 107 patients with HH (63 with Kallmann syndrome and 44 with normosmic HH) and 100 control individuals. The coding regions of PROK2 and PROKR2 were amplified by polymerase chain reaction followed by enzymatic purification and direct automatic sequencing. In PROK2, two known frameshift mutations were identified. Two brothers with Kallmann syndrome harbored the homozygous p.G100fsX121 mutation, whereas one male with normosmic HH harbored the heterozygous p.I55fsX56 mutation. In PROKR2, four distinct mutations (p.R80C, p.Y140X, p.L173R and p.R268C) were identified in five patients with Kallmann syndrome and in one patient with normosmic HH. These mutations were not found in the control group. The p.R80C and p.R268C missense mutations were identified in heterozygous state in the HH patients and in their asymptomatic first-degree relatives. The p.L173R was also identified in heterozygous state. In addition, no mutations of FGFR1, GnRHR, KiSS-1 or GPR54 were identified in these patients. The patient with the PROKR2 mutation p.R268C also has a deletion of the exon 1 and 2 in the gene KAL1. Notably, the new nonsense mutation (p.Y140X) was identified in homozygous state in an anosmic boy with micropenis, bilateral cryptorchidism and high-arched palate. His asymptomatic parents were heterozygous for this severe defect. In vitro studies of the new mutation, p.R80C, were performed in order to access the mechanism by which this mutation could affect the activity of the PROKR2. In vitro studies showed that the amount of fofatidil-inositol (PI) and the activation of MAPK were significantly lower in cells transfected with the R80C mutant receptor than in cells transfected with the wild receptor, indicating that this variant is a loss-of-function mutation. Binding studies and Western blot showed a reduction in the expression levels of the receptor in the plasma membrane and in whole cell, respectively. Additionally, Western blot analysis of R80C PROKR2 revealed an additional smaller molecular weight band that represents the presence of immature unglycosylated receptors. The arginine 80 in ICL1 is important for post-translational processing of PROKR2. In conclusion, we expanded the repertoire of PROK2 and PROKR2 mutations in patients with HH and showed that PROKR2 haploinsufficiency is not sufficient to cause Kallmann syndrome or normosmic HH, whereas homozygous loss-of-function mutations either in PROK2 or PROKR2 are sufficient to cause disease phenotype, in accordance with the Prokr2 and Prok2 knockout mouse models. In vitro studies suggested that the arginine located at position 80 of the receptor seems to play an important role in the receptor function

Blood cells or hemocytes play important roles in immunity. They are a major source of many immune-related molecules such as antibodies in adaptive immunity of vertebrates and prophenoloxidase (proPO) in invertebrates. In the crayfish Pacifastacus leniusculus, the proPO-system has been reported to be an important component of immune responses against microorganisms. In this study, several mutant strains of Aeromonas hydrophila were used to reveal that LPS (lipopolysaccharide) is an important factor for the pathogenicity of A. hydrophila, strongly inducing the proPO system and melanization. This proPO activating system is a multistep process, which has to be tightly controlled to avoid the harmful side effects of toxic intermediates. Many regulating factors have been reported to fine-tune the proPO-system. In this study, the cleavage of caspase-1-like activity was shown to be a novel negative regulator of PO activity in crayfish. Moreover, the fragments obtained by cleavage of proPO by the proPO-activating enzyme and caspase-1-like protein increased bacterial clearance. Thus, the peptides generated also have important biological functions. In addition to being a source of immune proteins, hemocytes also participate in phagocytosis, encapsulation, and nodulation. An infection normally causes a reduction of hemocyte numbers. Consequently, hemocyte homeostasis is important for maintaining appropriate hemocyte numbers in the circulation of the animal. This study shows that the reactive oxygen species level in the anterior proliferation center of crayfish hematopoietic tissue (HPT), together with cell proliferation, was increased during infection. Pl-β-thymosins were proposed to be involved in hemocyte homeostasis by increasing stem cell migration and thus increasing the circulating hemocyte number. Crayfish hemocyte numbers, as well astakine (Ast1 and Ast2) expression in hemocytes and HPT, were previously shown to be under circadian regulation. Here, we show that Ast1, Ast2, and proPO exhibit rhythmic expression in the crayfish brain similarly to their orthologs, prokineticin 1, prokineticin 2 and tyrosinase, respectively, in the zebrafish brain. Tyrosinase expression was detected in zebrafish brain cells while PO-positive cells were identified as hemocytes that had infiltrated into the crayfish brain. Therefore, this information suggests a close relationship between crayfish hemocytes and the crayfish brain as well as vertebrate neurons.

Hemocytes (blood cells) play an important role in the immune response in invertebrates, and thus the regulation of hemocyte homeostasis (hematopoiesis) is essential for the host survival against pathogens. Astakine 1, a homologue to vertebrate prokineticins, was first identified in the freshwater crayfish Pacifastacus leniusculus as a cytokine, and was found to be necessary for new hemocyte synthesis and release in vivo, and also to induce spreading and proliferation of Hematopoietic tissue cells (Hpt cells, precursor of hemocytes) in vitro. The work of this thesis is aimed to further our understanding of the molecular mechanisms involved in astakine 1 induced hematopoiesis. Crayfish transglutaminase (Tgase) has been identified in the hemocytes, and is essential for the coagulation reaction. Interestingly this enzyme is exceedingly abundant in the Hpt cells, and the spreading of Hpt cells induced by astakine 1 was accompanied by sequential loss of TGase activity from the surface of these cells. This loss of TGase activity may be an important effect of astakine 1, resulting in recruiting new hemocytes into the circulatory system. Although astakine 1 contain a prokineticin domain, it lacks the conserved N-terminal AVIT motif present in its vertebrate homologues. This motif is important for vertebrate prokineticins to interact with their receptors, indicating a different receptor interaction for crayfish astakine 1. Astakine 1 was indeed found to interact with a completely different receptor, the β-subunit of ATP synthase, on a portion of Hpt cells, and subsequently block its extracellular ATP formation. Surface ATP synthase has been reported on numerous mammalian cells, but now for the first time in an invertebrate. The activity of ATP synthase on the Hpt cells may be important for the survival and proliferation of Hpt cells, but the underlying mechanisms remain further study. With the finding of a second type of astakine in crayfish, invertebrate astakines can be divided into two groups: astakine 1 and astakine 2. The properties of astakine 2 are different from those of astakine 1 both in structure and function. In primary cell culture of Hpt cells, only astakine 1 can promote proliferation as well as differentiation into semigranular cells, whereas astakine 2 may play a potential role in the maturation of granular cells. Moreover, a novel cysteine rich protein, Pacifastacus hematopoiesis factor (PHF), was found to be one target gene of astakine 1 in Hpt cells. Down regulation of PHF results in increased apoptosis in Hpt cells in vitro, and in vivo silencing PHF leads to a severe loss of hemocytes in the animal. Therefore astakine 1 acquires the anti-apoptosis ability by inducing its downstream gene PHF in the Hpt cells. With its ability to promote the survival, proliferation and differentiation of Hpt cells, astakine 1 is proven to be an important hematopoietic growth factor.

Les prokinéticines sont des hormones angiogéniques qui exercent leurs fonctions biologiques par l’intermédiaire de deux récepteurs couplés aux protéines G : PKR1 et PKR2. PKR1 a été révélé comme crucial dans l’homéostasie cardiovasculaire. L’objectif de ce projet de thèse était de développer un nouvel agoniste non–peptidique à PKR1 pour la cardioprotection et la régénération cardiaque. Les premiers résultats ont permis de caractériser le premier ligand spécifique à PKR1 : IS20. L’étude in vivo a démontré qu’IS20 est capable de prévenir les lésions après induction d’un infarctus du myocarde chez la souris. Ce composé améliore les fonctions cardiaques en activant la prolifération de cellules progénitrices cardiaques et la néovascularisation (Gasser et al, PlosOne, 2015). Dans une deuxième étude, nous avons évalué le potentiel cardioprotecteur d’IS20 face à la toxicité induite par la doxorubicine (DOX), un anticancéreux de la famille des anthracyclines très efficace mais cardiotoxique. Les résultats montrent qu’IS20 atténue l’apoptose des cardiomyocytes H9c2 et des cellules progénitrices humaines de types EPDC, induite par la doxorubicine, sans affecter la cytotoxicité de la doxorubicine sur les cellules cancéreuses. In vivo, le traitement par IS20 atténue la diminution de la prolifération provoquée par la doxorubicine dans un modèle de cardiotoxicité juvénile. Dans un modèle de cardiotoxicité chronique, IS20 maintient l’intégrité cellulaire et tissulaire des vaisseaux et protège des défaillances produites par DOX. Par ses effets cytoprotecteurs des cardiomyocytes et des cellules progénitrices cardiaques, l’IS20 présente un potentiel thérapeutique prometteur pour protéger les patients cancéreux des effets cardiotoxiques des anthracyclines. / Prokineticins are angiogenic hormones that activate two G protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs): PKR1 and PKR2. PKR1 has emerged as a critical mediator of cardiovascular homeostasis and cardioprotection. The aim of this thesis project was to develop a first non-peptide PKR1 agonist stimulates cardioprotection and cardiac regeneration in mouse model of myocardial infarction (MI) or anti-cancer drug mediated cardiotoxicity. Collaboration with chemist and biomodelization team, we characterized the first selective/specific PKR1 agonist, named IS20. In vivo study demonstrated IS20 prevented cardiac lesion formation and improved cardiac function after myocardial infarction in mice, promoting proliferation of cardiac progenitor cells and neovasculogenesis (Gasser et al., 2015). Since use of a very potent anthracycline chemotherapeutic, Doxorubicin (DOX) is limited by cardiotoxicity, we hypothesized that IS20 could protect heart against DOX-mediated cardiotoxicity. Indeed, IS20 attenuated apoptosis induced by DOX in H9c2 cardiomyocytes and human epicardial progenitors in vitro. However, IS20 did not affect antineoplastic or cytostatic effect of DOX in cancer cell lines. In vivo, in the juvenile model of cardiotoxicity, IS20 significantly attenuated DOX-induced decrease in viability and proliferation cardiac progenitor cells. In the chronic cardiotoxicity model by DOX, IS20 improves heart structure and function by the activation of cardiac progenitor cells, diminishing cardiac cell death, improving vascular stability. IS20 has translational potential for cardioprotection in patients with cancer receiving anthracyclines.

O Trypanosoma cruzi é um protozoário flagelado agente causador da Doença de Chagas, patologia endêmica da América Latina. Tripomastigotas de T. cruzi expressam em sua superfície celular glicoproteínas denominadas Tc-85 e pertencentes à superfamília gp85/trans-sialidase. Vários membros desta superfamília têm sido implicados na invasão das células hospedeiras pelo T. cruzi e componentes da matriz extracelular, como fibronectina e laminina, foram descritos como alguns de seus ligantes. Utilizando a técnica de phage display, a seqüência GGIALAG foi identificada por ligar-se especificamente e de uma forma dose-dependente ao H3.3p, uma proteína recombinante que corresponde a um fragmento interno de um membro clonado da Tc85 (Tc85-11). A análise através de alinhamento identificou o receptor de procineticina 2 (PKR2) como candidato putativo. Os receptores de procineticina (PKR1 e PKR2) são expressos em muitos tecidos e estruturalmente são membros da família da rodopsina, com sete domínios transmembranares e sítios putativos para modificações pós-traducionais. Os ligantes, as procineticinas 1 e 2, são peptídeos envolvidos em uma variedade de processos biológicos, tais como angiogênese, hematopoiese, diferenciação de monócitos, ativação de macrófagos, sobrevida neuronal, ativação do bulbo olfatório, motilidade gastrointestinal, nocicepção, ritmo circadiano, coordenação do comportamento circadiano e sua fisiologia e na função reprodutiva. Com o objetivo de verificar se os PKRs poderiam ser receptores de Tc85, foi utilizada a linhagem epitelial MCF10A, derivada de células mamárias humanas, que expressam PKR2 e PKR1, avaliado pelas técnicas de imunofluorescência, Western Blot e RT-PCR. A estratégia envolveu ensaios de ligação da proteína recombinante H3.3p e ensaios de inibição da invasão por T. cruzi em células MCF10A utilizando anticorpo anti-PKR2 ou um peptídeo sintético com a sequência GGIALAG. Este trabalho mostrou que 1. H3.3p se liga à superfície de MCF10A, detectado por imunofluorescência indireta, utilizando anticorpo monoclonal G1/G8 (que reconhece H3.3p); 2. H3.3p se liga a uma banda de ~45 kDa em um extrato de MCF10A, observado em um blot de nitrocelulose (\"overlay\") 3. O peptídeo sintético GGIALAG inibe a ligação do H3.3p à banda de ~45 kDa do extrato de MCF10A, região reconhecida pelo anticorpo anti-PKR2; 4. Os antígenos reconhecidos por anticorpos anti-PKR2 e anticorpos anti-GGIALAG colocalizam na superfície da célula MCF10A, avaliada por microscopia confocal; 5. Anticorpos anti-PKR2 inibem até ~ 60% da infecção de MCF10A pelo T. cruzi; 6. O peptídeo sintético GGIALAG (0,2mM) inibe até ~ 40% da infecção de MCF10A pelo T. cruzi; 7. Anticorpos anti-PKR1 inibem até ~ 60% da infecção de MCF10A pelo T. cruzi. Em conjunto, e aliado ao fato de PKRs serem expressos numa grande variedade de tecidos e órgãos, incluindo alguns classicamente alvo de T. cruzi, os dados sugerem que PKRs são ligantes para T. cruzi durante a infecção. Os dados sugerem ainda que a seqüência de aminoácidos GIALAG, presente em PKR2 estaria envolvida neste processo. / Trypanosoma cruzi is a flagellated protozoan causing Chagas\' disease. Trypomastigotes, an infective stage of T. cruzi, express at the cell surface members of Tc85, glycoproteins that belong to the gp85/trans-sialidase gene superfamily. Several members of the superfamily have been implicated in the invasion of host cells by T. cruzi and components of the extracellular matrix, as fibronectin and laminin, were described as their ligands. Using the phage display technique, a sequence (GGIALAG) was identified that specifically binds in a dose-dependent manner to H3.3p, a recombinant protein corresponding to an internal fragment of a cloned member of Tc-85. Alignment analysis identified the prokineticin receptor 2 (PKR2), as a putative candidate. Prokineticin receptors (PKR1, PKR2) are expressed in many tissues and are members of the rhodopsin family, with seven transmembrane domains and putative post-translational modifications. The ligands, prokineticins 1 and 2, are peptides involved in a variety of biological processes, such as angiogenesis, hematopoiesis, monocyte diferentiation, neuronal survival, machophage activation, olfactory bulb activation, gastrointestinal motility, pain sensitization, circadian rhythm and coordination of circadian behavior and physiology, as well as in reproduction function. In order to verify whether PKRs may be Tc85 receptors, MCF10A, a human mammary epithelial cell line, which expresses PKRs, as assessed by indirect immunofluorescence, Western Blot and RT-PCR, was employed as host cell. The strategy involved binding assays of H3.3p to MCF10A and invasion assay of MCF10A by T. cruzi in the presence of the synthetic peptide GGIALAG or in the presence of anti-PKR1, anti-PKR2 and anti-GGIALAG antibodies. This work shows that: 1. H3.3p binds to the surface of MCF10A; 2. H3.3p binds to a ~45 kDa band in a nitrocellulose blot of MCF10A cell extract (overlay); 3. The synthetic peptide GGIALAG inhibits the binding of H3.3p to the ~45 kDa band of MCF10A cell extract in the same region recognized by anti-PKR2 antibody; 4. The antigens recognized by anti-PKR2 antibody and by anti-GGIALAG antibody co-localize at the cell surface of MCF10A; 5. Anti-PKR2 antibody inhibits by ~60% the infection of MCF10A by T. cruzi; 6. The synthetic peptide GGIALAG (0.2 mM) inhibits by ~40% the infection of MCF10A by T. cruzi. 7. Anti-PKR1 antibody inhibits by ~60% the infection of MCF10A by T. cruzi; Altogether, and supported by the fact that PKR2 is widely expressed, including some classical targets of T. cruzi, the data herein indicate a possible role of PKR2, in particular the amino acid sequence GGIALAG, as a ligand for T. cruzi infection.

O Trypanosoma cruzi é um protozoário flagelado agente causador da Doença de Chagas, patologia endêmica da América Latina. Tripomastigotas de T. cruzi expressam em sua superfície celular glicoproteínas denominadas Tc-85 e pertencentes à superfamília gp85/trans-sialidase. Vários membros desta superfamília têm sido implicados na invasão das células hospedeiras pelo T. cruzi e componentes da matriz extracelular, como fibronectina e laminina, foram descritos como alguns de seus ligantes. Utilizando a técnica de phage display, a seqüência GGIALAG foi identificada por ligar-se especificamente e de uma forma dose-dependente ao H3.3p, uma proteína recombinante que corresponde a um fragmento interno de um membro clonado da Tc85 (Tc85-11). A análise através de alinhamento identificou o receptor de procineticina 2 (PKR2) como candidato putativo. Os receptores de procineticina (PKR1 e PKR2) são expressos em muitos tecidos e estruturalmente são membros da família da rodopsina, com sete domínios transmembranares e sítios putativos para modificações pós-traducionais. Os ligantes, as procineticinas 1 e 2, são peptídeos envolvidos em uma variedade de processos biológicos, tais como angiogênese, hematopoiese, diferenciação de monócitos, ativação de macrófagos, sobrevida neuronal, ativação do bulbo olfatório, motilidade gastrointestinal, nocicepção, ritmo circadiano, coordenação do comportamento circadiano e sua fisiologia e na função reprodutiva. Com o objetivo de verificar se os PKRs poderiam ser receptores de Tc85, foi utilizada a linhagem epitelial MCF10A, derivada de células mamárias humanas, que expressam PKR2 e PKR1, avaliado pelas técnicas de imunofluorescência, Western Blot e RT-PCR. A estratégia envolveu ensaios de ligação da proteína recombinante H3.3p e ensaios de inibição da invasão por T. cruzi em células MCF10A utilizando anticorpo anti-PKR2 ou um peptídeo sintético com a sequência GGIALAG. Este trabalho mostrou que 1. H3.3p se liga à superfície de MCF10A, detectado por imunofluorescência indireta, utilizando anticorpo monoclonal G1/G8 (que reconhece H3.3p); 2. H3.3p se liga a uma banda de ~45 kDa em um extrato de MCF10A, observado em um blot de nitrocelulose (\"overlay\") 3. O peptídeo sintético GGIALAG inibe a ligação do H3.3p à banda de ~45 kDa do extrato de MCF10A, região reconhecida pelo anticorpo anti-PKR2; 4. Os antígenos reconhecidos por anticorpos anti-PKR2 e anticorpos anti-GGIALAG colocalizam na superfície da célula MCF10A, avaliada por microscopia confocal; 5. Anticorpos anti-PKR2 inibem até ~ 60% da infecção de MCF10A pelo T. cruzi; 6. O peptídeo sintético GGIALAG (0,2mM) inibe até ~ 40% da infecção de MCF10A pelo T. cruzi; 7. Anticorpos anti-PKR1 inibem até ~ 60% da infecção de MCF10A pelo T. cruzi. Em conjunto, e aliado ao fato de PKRs serem expressos numa grande variedade de tecidos e órgãos, incluindo alguns classicamente alvo de T. cruzi, os dados sugerem que PKRs são ligantes para T. cruzi durante a infecção. Os dados sugerem ainda que a seqüência de aminoácidos GIALAG, presente em PKR2 estaria envolvida neste processo. / Trypanosoma cruzi is a flagellated protozoan causing Chagas\' disease. Trypomastigotes, an infective stage of T. cruzi, express at the cell surface members of Tc85, glycoproteins that belong to the gp85/trans-sialidase gene superfamily. Several members of the superfamily have been implicated in the invasion of host cells by T. cruzi and components of the extracellular matrix, as fibronectin and laminin, were described as their ligands. Using the phage display technique, a sequence (GGIALAG) was identified that specifically binds in a dose-dependent manner to H3.3p, a recombinant protein corresponding to an internal fragment of a cloned member of Tc-85. Alignment analysis identified the prokineticin receptor 2 (PKR2), as a putative candidate. Prokineticin receptors (PKR1, PKR2) are expressed in many tissues and are members of the rhodopsin family, with seven transmembrane domains and putative post-translational modifications. The ligands, prokineticins 1 and 2, are peptides involved in a variety of biological processes, such as angiogenesis, hematopoiesis, monocyte diferentiation, neuronal survival, machophage activation, olfactory bulb activation, gastrointestinal motility, pain sensitization, circadian rhythm and coordination of circadian behavior and physiology, as well as in reproduction function. In order to verify whether PKRs may be Tc85 receptors, MCF10A, a human mammary epithelial cell line, which expresses PKRs, as assessed by indirect immunofluorescence, Western Blot and RT-PCR, was employed as host cell. The strategy involved binding assays of H3.3p to MCF10A and invasion assay of MCF10A by T. cruzi in the presence of the synthetic peptide GGIALAG or in the presence of anti-PKR1, anti-PKR2 and anti-GGIALAG antibodies. This work shows that: 1. H3.3p binds to the surface of MCF10A; 2. H3.3p binds to a ~45 kDa band in a nitrocellulose blot of MCF10A cell extract (overlay); 3. The synthetic peptide GGIALAG inhibits the binding of H3.3p to the ~45 kDa band of MCF10A cell extract in the same region recognized by anti-PKR2 antibody; 4. The antigens recognized by anti-PKR2 antibody and by anti-GGIALAG antibody co-localize at the cell surface of MCF10A; 5. Anti-PKR2 antibody inhibits by ~60% the infection of MCF10A by T. cruzi; 6. The synthetic peptide GGIALAG (0.2 mM) inhibits by ~40% the infection of MCF10A by T. cruzi. 7. Anti-PKR1 antibody inhibits by ~60% the infection of MCF10A by T. cruzi; Altogether, and supported by the fact that PKR2 is widely expressed, including some classical targets of T. cruzi, the data herein indicate a possible role of PKR2, in particular the amino acid sequence GGIALAG, as a ligand for T. cruzi infection.

L’obésité est un facteur de risque pour de nombreuses maladies telles que le diabète de type 2 et les maladies cardiovasculaires. La prokinéticine-2 a été caractérisée comme une hormone anorexigène qui joue un rôle dans la régulation de l’appétit et le métabolisme énergétique via une action sur le récepteur PKR2 au niveau centrale.Cette étude consiste à étudier l’implication de la PK2 et de PKR1 dans le tissu adipeux et dans la physiopathologie de l’obésité. Les souris PKR1-/- dans lesquelles le gène codant pour PKR1 est totalement inactivé, présentent une obésité par hyperplasie, du fait de la prolifération des préadipocytes. Les souris PKR1-/- présentent un état diabétique, avec une insensibilité à l’insuline accrue et une forte intolérance au glucose. Les souris aP2-PKR1-/- dans lesquelles PKR1 est spécifiquement inactivé dans le tissu adipeux, présentent, elle aussi, une obésité hyperplasique, due de la prolifération des préadipocytes. In vitro, nos résultats montrent que la PK2 est capable d’inhiber la différenciation des préadipocytes en inhibant la prolifération des préadipocytes lors de la phase d’expansion clonale mitotique. Nos résultats permettent d’envisager un rôle de la PK2 et de son récepteur PKR1 dans le traitement de l’obésité. / Obesity is a risk factor for various disorders such as type 2 diabetes and cardiovascular diseases. The prokineticins, prokineticin-1 and prokineticin-2 bind two similar G protein-coupled receptors, PKR1 and PKR2. Prokineticin-2 is an anorexigenic hormone that plays a role in appetite regulation and energy metabolism, via a direct hypothalamic mechanism. Since adipocytes express mainly PKR1, we investigated the role of PKR1 in adipocyte functions. PKR1-null mutant mice exhibit increased body weight that is due to an increased visceral fat mass. Mutant adipose tissue is characterized by adipocyte hyperplasia due to an increase in number of proliferating preadipocyte. Mutant adipocytes exhibit downregulation of insulin signaling that is associated with glucose and insulin tolerance. Adipocyte-specific aP2-PKR1 knockout mice present also an increased visceral adipose tissue that lead to a slight increased body weight. Fat mass is also characterized by an hyperplasia and an increased preadipocyte proliferation. This mice present slight metabolic changes. Utilizing 3T3-L1 murine preadipocytes, our study reveals that prokineticin-2 exerts an antiadipogenic function in murine cells. Inhibition of adipogenesis mediated by prokineticin-2 involved PKR1. Prokineticin-2 also inhibits proliferation of preadipocytes. These results suggest that prokineticin-2 via PKR1 signaling plays a crucial role in adipogenesis and adipose tissue hyperplasia.