La microflore des raisins est importante d’un point de vue technologique car elle conditionne en partie la qualité du vin. Or, la diversité des flores fongiques présentes sur baies de raisin ainsi que leur potentiel de contamination du produit final ne sont pas encore pleinement connus. Dans ce cadre, la caractérisation des flores fongiques cultivables présentes sur baies de raisin a été réalisée par PCR ITS-RFLP. 41 espèces de moisissures différentes sur les 43 étudiées appartenant à 11 genres différents ont été caractérisées de façon fiable. Seules les espèces Penicillium thomii et Penicillium glabrum ont présenté le même profil. Ainsi 96.3% des souches étudiées ont été caractérisées avec au maximum 4 enzymes de restriction et 41.5% des souches ont pu l’être avec seulement 2 enzymes de restriction. Ces résultats ont permis d’enrichir les bases de données, moyennement pourvues en séquences ITS caractéristiques de genres ou d’espèces de moisissures présentes sur baies de raisin. De plus, une étude exhaustive des moisissures présentes sur baies de raisin en Bourgogne a permis, par PCR ITS-RFLP, d’identifier 199 souches au niveau de l’espèce et ce quelque soit le genre. Penicillium spinulosum est l’espèce majoritaire isolée pour le millésime 2008 en Bourgogne. Parallèlement, la quantification de Botrytis cinerea, choisi comme micro-organisme modèle, a été réalisée par qPCR. La technique qPCR décrite dans ce travail présente (i) une bonne sensibilté avec une limite de détection de 6.4 pg d’ADN correspondant à 540 spores, (ii) l’originalité de travailler en échantillons naturellement contaminés et la fiabilité d’utiliser un standard interne. L’évaluation de l’efficacité de différentes stratégies de traitements anti-Botrytis a confirmé l’importance de la prophylaxie (effeuillage) dans la lutte contre Botrytis cinerea. / Microbial population of grapes is important from a technological point of view because it determines the quality of wine. But few studies have focused on fungal populations of grapes. A better knowledge of the fungal diversity on grapes, particularly as concerns species responsible for wine defects, may help efforts to control their development.We report the development of a PCR ITS-RFLP method as a fast and easy technique for identifying species of fungal genera present on grapes. By this methode, 41 different fungal species among 43 studied species belonging to 11 genera were characterized at the species level. Only P. thomii remained indistinguishable from P. glabrum. Using this PCR-ITS-RFLP, 96.3% strains tested could be differentiated to the species level with only four enzymes and 41.5% only with two enzymes. Moreover this work has contributed to the enriching of the database of fungal ITS sequences.Thus 199 isolated strain were on grapes in Burgundy vineyard were chacacterized at species level indepdantly of the genus by this method. P. spinolusum was the most frequently isolated species of Penicillium in Burgundy for 2008 vintage. Paralelly, the quantification of Botrytis cinerea, used as model, was developped by qPCR. The assay contained an internal amplification control to compensate for variations in DNA extraction and the various compounds from grapes, had high efficiency and the limit of detection was estimated to be 6.3 pg DNA (corresponding to 540 spores). This method was applied to assess the effects of various treatment strategies against Botrytis in the vineyard and demonstrates the importance of the prophylactic method.

La viticulture nordique connaît actuellement un essor important suite au développement de cépages hybrides présentant une tolérance élevée au froid et un potentiel œnologique intéressant. Cependant, la composition volatile de ces cépages est peu connue, ce qui limite le développement de la qualité des vins. Le profil aromatique des raisins et des vins de dix cépages hybrides (Frontenac, Maréchal Foch, Marquette, St. Croix, Sabrevois, Frontenac blanc, Frontenac gris, Seyval, St. Pepin, Vidal) cultivés au Québec pour la production vinicole a donc été réalisé par HS-SPME-GC-MS. Les résultats ont montré des différences importantes entre les arômes variétaux des cépages à l’étude. Chez les rouges et les blancs, une corrélation a été établie entre la teneur en terpènes et en certains composés C6 dans les moûts et leur concentration dans les vins. Les vins de Marquette et de Vidal ont montré une teneur plus élevée en terpènes et en esters éthyliques. / Northern viticulture is currently experiencing an important growth following the development of cold-hardy hybrid varieties with an interesting oenological potential. However, the volatile composition of these varieties is not well known, limiting the improvement of wine quality. The aromatic profile of grapes and wines from hybrid varieties (Frontenac, Marechal Foch, Marquette, St. Croix, Sabrevois Frontenac blanc, Frontenac gris, Seyval, St. Pepin, Vidal) grown in Quebec for wine production has been studied using HS-SPME-GC-MS. The results showed significant differences between the varietal aroma in the grapes and wines under study. In both red and white varieties, correlations were found between the content of terpenes and some C6 compounds in musts, and their subsequent concentration in the wines. Marquette and Vidal wines showed a higher content of terpenes and ethyl esters.

Dans le vin rouge, les composés phénoliques sont souvent associés à la qualité du produit. Parmi eux, les anthocyanes sont responsables de la couleur du vin rouge et chaque cépage possède un génome spécifique déterminant le profil anthocyanique de chacun. Les pratiques culturales peuvent influencer l’accumulation de ces molécules dans la baie de raisin, tandis que les différentes techniques fermentaires peuvent modifier leur extraction. Les flavanols monomères, oligomères et polymères des pépins et des pellicules contribuent à l’amertume et l’astringence des vins. Pendant la vinification et l’élevage, ceux-ci réagissent avec les anthocyanes modifiant les propriétés du vin. De nombreuses publications concernant les caractéristiques sensorielles des flavanols ont été réalisées, alors que la contribution sensorielle des anthocyanes est encore mal connue. Cette thèse se décompose en deux parties. La première partie s’intéresse à l’étude de l’utilisation d’ozone gazeux comme technique pré-fermentaire sur les cépages rouges Nebbiolo et Barbera après récolte et pendant le passerillage. L’ozone est une technique innovante pour la réduction des contaminations microbiennes et la réduction du dioxyde de soufre. L’influence de cette technique sur les parois cellulaire des pellicules, sur l’extraction, la concentration en flavanols et en anthocyanes pendant la macération a été évaluée. L’étude montre que l’ozone possède un impact sur la macération des raisins, induisant une extraction plus importante des anthocyanes dans le Nebbiolo. En revanche, l’ozone n’influence ni les anthocyanes moléculaires, ni le profil variétal de chaque cépage. Pendant le passerillage, l’inverse a été étudié. L’extraction des anthocyanes dans le Nebbiolo est diminuée. A l’inverse, bien que moins d’anthocyanes soient retrouvées dans le raisin de Barbera, le traitement ne possède aucun impact sur l’extraction de celles-ci. Concernant les flavanols, l’extraction est moins influencée par le traitement à l’ozone. Des différences ont été retrouvées dans le cépage Nebbiolo. Les flavonols sont plus concentrés après le traitement avec l’ozone sur les raisins post-récolte, alors qu’ils diminuent pendant le passerillage. La modification causée sur la paroi cellulaire par l’ozone ainsi que la dureté des pellicules pourraient prédire l’extraction des anthocyanes et des flavanols, grâce à des analyses multi-variées. En conséquence, le traitement avec l’ozone doit être adapté en fonction du cépage et du produit final désiré. Dans la deuxième partie, les anthocyanes des raisins ont été extraites à partir des raisins et ces extraits ont été fractionnés en trois fractions, glucoside, acetyl-glucoside et cinnamoyl-glucoside, par Chromatographie de Partage Centrifuge (CPC) et CLHP (Chromatographie Liquide Haute Performance) préparative. L’évaluation de l’astringence a été réalisée par des analyses de précipitation protéique avec une protéine modèle BSA (Bovine Serum Albumin) et des protéines salivaires, les anthocyanes réagissant avec ces dernières. Les analyses sensorielles et l’évaluation de l’astringence ont été combinées. La concentration en anthocyane diminue après le traitement avec les protéines salivaires, dans l’extrait total et dans les fractions, en particulier les cinnamoyl-glucosides apparaissent comme les plus réactives avec les protéines salivaires. Les seuils de perception gustatifs ont été calculés avec la méthode “Best estimate threshold” dans le vin modèle. Les fractions acétyl-glucosides et cinnamoyl-glucosides, suivies de la fraction glucoside, possèdent des seuils de perception plus bas aux concentrations retrouvées dans les vins. Les descripteurs associés à ces fractions sont l’amertume et l’astringence. Ces résultats démontreraient que les anthocyanes apportent une contribution sensorielle dans la perception du vin en bouche, corrélée à l’acétylation des molécules. / In red wine, phenolic compounds are generally associated with the quality of products. Among them, anthocyanins extracted from skins are responsible for wine colour. The grapevine genomes determine the anthocyanins profiles, but several factors in the vineyard can influence their accumulation, as well as post-harvest techniques can modify their extraction during winemaking. Monomeric, oligomeric and polymeric flavanols from skins and seeds contribute to astringency and bitterness of wine and during winemaking and ageing complexes formation with anthocyanins modifies wine characteristics. Several publications are available to understand flavanols sensory characteristics, whereas anthocyanins role has not consensus in scientific literature. This PhD thesis is composed by two parts. The first part deal with the evaluation of the use of gaseous ozone as post-harvest technique in red wine grapes Nebbiolo and Barbera used on both fresh grape and during withering. Ozone treatment is an innovative technology proved to avoid mycobiota spoilage and preserving from the use of sulphur dioxide. Its influence on flavanol and anthocyanin contents and extractabilities during maceration was evaluated, considering skin cell wall modification. In fresh grape, ozone influenced skin maceration for both the varieties, leading to a higher anthocyanin extraction in Nebbiolo grapes and lower in Barbera. Ozone did not influence the final individual anthocyanin extractability, respecting the varietal anthocyanin fingerprint. During dehydration, opposite trend was found: in Nebbiolo reported no change in the content of total anthocyanins just after ozone-assisted dehydration, but their extraction yield was lower. On the contrary, although lower contents of anthocyanins were found in Barbera grapes no differences in final extractability was found. Regarding oligomeric and polymeric flavanols, their extractability was less affected by the ozone treatment. Only in Nebbiolo, both oligomeric and polymeric flavanol extraction was increased in fresh grape, whereas it is slightly decrease during dehydration. The ozone-induced modification of skin cell wall composition together with skin hardness parameters fitted well in multivariate models to predict anthocyanins, oligomeric flavanols and polymeric flavanols extraction. Therefore, the ozone treatment should be adapted depending on the variety and on the target wine. In the second part, grape anthocyanins were isolated depending on the acylation patterns, i.e. glucoside, acetyl-glucoside, and cinnamoyl-glucoside by a combination of centrifugal partition chromatography (CPC) and preparative-HPLC. Protein precipitation analyses to assess astringency and sensorial analysis were carried out. Anthocyanins reacted with both bovine serum albumine and salivary proteins, in different extent, since higher interaction between anthocyanins and salivary proteins was found with a significative reduction of total extract and fractions glucoside, acetyl-glucoside, and cinnamoyl-glucoside. The latter in particular is the more reactive to salivary proteins. Sensorial analysis was carried out as detection threshold test. Best estimated threshold (BET) of anthocyanins were resulted in wine-range scale, in particular acetyl-glucoside and cinnamoyl-glucoside BET are lower of glucoside threshold, and descriptors reported were astringency and bitterness. These results show that anthocyanins can be detected as in-mouth properties contributors, and the magnitude of their involvement is related to anthocyanins acylation.

La Nouvelle-Écosse présente des conditions climatiques annuelles variables, ce qui en fait un environnement difficile pour la production de raisin pour la vinification. La relation entre la maturité des baies et la composition chimique du vin a été étudiée chez les cultivars de Vitis vinifera, mais peu d'études ont porté sur les hybrides interspécifiques Vitis sp. comme celles cultivés dans l'Est du Canada. Dans ce contexte, ce projet visait à étudier la relation entre la composition chimique du raisin et du vin, dont les composés volatils libres et liés, chez les hybrides interspécifiques Vitis sp. L'Acadie blanc, Osceola Muscat et Seyval blanc récoltés à trois stades de maturation en Nouvelle-Écosse, au cours des saisons 2019 et 2020. Parmi les trois variétés analysées dans cette étude, Osceola Muscat a montré des caractéristiques intéressantes pour la production de vin de climat froid pendant la saison chaude : au dernier stade de maturité (HD3), il a montré un niveau significativement plus élevé de terpènes dans le vin, ce qui suggère que le vin résultant était potentiellement de meilleure qualité, avec des notes florales désirables. Dans des conditions climatiques difficiles, une accumulation plus élevée de GDD (saisons plus chaudes) et une maturité plus tardive (HD3) ont eu un impact positif sur la composition aromatique du vin dans toutes les variétés hybrides interspécifiques de Vitis cultivées en Nouvelle-Écosse. / Nova Scotia shows variable yearly climatic conditions making it a challenging environment for grape production for wine making. The relationship between berry ripeness and wine chemical composition has been studied in Vitis vinifera cultivars, but few studies investigated the interspecific hybrid Vitis sp. such as those grown in Eastern Canada. In this context, this project aimed at investigating the relationship between the grape and wine chemical composition such as free and bound volatile compounds, in the interspecific hybrid Vitis sp. L'Acadie blanc, Osceola Muscat and Seyval blanc harvested at three ripening stages in Nova Scotia during 2019 and 2020. Among the three varieties analyzed in this study, Osceola Muscat showed valuable characteristics for cold-climate wine production in the warmer season at the latest maturity stage, with a significantly higher level of terpenes in wine, suggesting that the resulting wine was potentially of higher quality, with more desirable floral notes. Higher accumulation of GDD (warmer seasons) and later maturity had positively impacted wine aroma composition in all studied interspecific hybrid Vitis varieties in Nova Scotia within challenging climatic conditions.

Les composés phénoliques ont été peu étudiés dans les baies et les vins des cépages cultivés au Québec, malgré leur importance sur la qualité des vins. Au cours de ce projet, le profil des composés phénoliques a été étudié dans les baies et les vins de dix cépages rouges et blancs récoltés au Québec. Les résultats ont montré que les vins rouges contenaient une forte concentration en pigments rouges et peu de flavan-3-ols. Au contraire, les baies des cépages blancs avaient une teneur élevée en flavan-3-ols. L’impact de la présence de pigments sur la polymérisation des proanthocyanidines a été étudié en microfermentation et a permis de démontrer que la polymérisation des proanthocyanidines est accrue lorsqu’un moût blanc est fermenté avec un marc rouge. Ce projet a permis d'établir une base de connaissance sur les cépages hybrides qui contribuera au développement de vins nordiques de grande qualité.

Submitted by Maike Costa (maiksebas@gmail.com) on 2017-09-06T11:10:37Z No. of bitstreams: 1 arquivototal.pdf: 2110267 bytes, checksum: c52da765be6ca0e3d5583f305ad0e5e7 (MD5) / Made available in DSpace on 2017-09-06T11:10:37Z (GMT). No. of bitstreams: 1 arquivototal.pdf: 2110267 bytes, checksum: c52da765be6ca0e3d5583f305ad0e5e7 (MD5) Previous issue date: 2016-03-23 / Coordenação de Aperfeiçoamento de Pessoal de Nível Superior - CAPES / Conselho Nacional de Pesquisa e Desenvolvimento Científico e Tecnológico - CNPq / The Lower Basin of the São Francisco Valley is an important region for production of fine table grapes, representing more than 95% of the national grape exports. However, grapes outside the standard for export are sold at discounted prices and are often intended for discart. The objective of this study was to evaluate the potential of grapes produced in the Lower Basin of the São Francisco Valley for the production of raisins. Six grape genotypes without seeds were used in our study: four tint (Cnpuv 8, Adona, BRS Victory BRS Isis) and two white (A1105 and Thomson Seedless). After, grapes were destemmed, sanitized, treated with 1mol.L-1 NaOH and dried at 60 °C. Later, raisins were physically and chemically characterized. The treatment with 1% NaOH was efficient to trigger skin rupture, increasing water loss and reducing drying time. For maintaining the color of the white grapes (A1105), raisins without the use of antioxidants had a lighter color, next to the fruit when in nature. ‘Thompson Seedless’ raisins had higher soluble solids with 43.78 ° Brix and ‘Adona’ had higher titratable acidity, 3.00% tartaric acid, whereas ‘BRS Isis’ had the highest firmness, 90,12g. The genotype had a strong effect on raisin sensory profile. ‘Adona’ and ‘Cnpuv8’ showed higher intensity of caramelized flavor, sweet taste, dry fruit flavor and firmness. ‘BRS Victoria’ raisins had greater acceptance averaging 6.8 in hedonic scale of 9 points and purchase intention to purchase 65% of consumers. ‘Thompson Seedless’ raisins genotype had the highest concentration of sugar, 736.05 g kg-1, while ‘BRS Isis’ and ‘BRS Victoria’ had the highest concentrations of total phenolics and anthocyanins. All red cultivars showed higher concentrations of stilbene, flavonols, flavanols and total phenolic acids higher than ‘Thompson Seedless’. The highest concentration of flavonols was observed ‘BRS Isis’ with 181 mg Kg-1. ‘BRS Victoria’ had the highest concentrations of phenolic acids and stilbene trans-resveratrol at 31.87 and 4.37 mg Kg-1 of dried weight, respectively. / A Região do Submédio do Vale do São Francisco tem apresentado destaque na produção de uvas finas de mesa, representando mais de 95% da exportação nacional de uva. No entanto, uvas que apresentam-se fora do padrão para exportação, são comercializadas com preços reduzidos e muitas vezes são destinadas ao descarte. O objetivo deste trabalho foi avaliar o potencial de uvas produzidas no Submédio do Vale do São Francisco para elaboração de passas. Foram avaliados seis genótipos de uva sem sementes, sendo quatro tintas (Cnpuv 8, Adona, BRS Vitória e BRS Isis) e duas brancas (A1105 e Thomson Seedless), que após a colheita as uvas foram desengaçadas, sanitizadas, tratados com NaOH 1mol.L-1 e submetidas a secagem a 60°C. Após, as uvas-passas foram caracterizadas física e quimicamente. O tratamento com NaOH mostrou-se eficiente no processo de ruptura da epiderme, facilitando a perda de água e reduzindo o tempo de secagem. Na manutenção da cor das uvas brancas (A1105), passas desidratadas sem o uso de antioxidantes apresentaram a coloração mais clara, próxima a do fruto quando in natura. Uvas passas elaboradas com ‘Thompson Seedless’ apresentaram maior valor de sólidos solúveis com 43,78 °Brix e a partir do genótipo ‘Adona’ maior acidez, 3,00% ác.tartárico. Passas ‘BRS Isis’ obtiveram a maior firmeza, com 90,12g. O genótipo apresentou influência no perfil sensorial das uvas passas. Uvas-passas dos genótipos Adona e Cnpuv8 diferenciaram-se por apresentar maior intensidade nos atributos sabor caramelizado, gosto doce, sabor de fruta seca e firmeza. Passas elaboradas com ‘BRS Vitória’ apresentaram maior aceitação com média 6,8 em escala hedônica de 9 pontos e intenção de compra de 65% dos consumidores. Uvas passas elaboradas com o genótipo ‘Thompson Seedless’ apresentaram a maior concentração de açúcares totais com 736,05 g Kg-1, enquanto que as passas ‘BRS Isis’ e ‘BRS Vitória’ apresentaram as maiores concentrações de fenólicos totais e antocianinas. Todas as passas elaboradas com as cultivares tintas apresentaram estilbeno, flavonóis, flavonóis e ácidos fenólicos totais superiores a ‘Thompson Seedless’. A maior concentração de flavonóis foi obtida nas passas ‘BRS Isis’ com 181 mg Kg-1 de uva, já as passas elaboradas com ‘BRS Vitória’ apresentaram as maiores concentrações de ácidos fenólicos e do estilbeno trans-resveratrol, com 31,87 e 4,37 mg Kg-1 de uva seca, respectivamente.

Les déchets issus de l’industrie vinicole française sont traditionnellement traités et valorisés en distilleries. Ce travail porte sur l’étude de la valorisation à échelle industrielle d’un des résidus ultimes des distilleries : le marc de raisin épuisé. Les marcs issus de différents bassins de productions français ont été caractérisés chimiquement, principalement par leur taux de tannins condensés et de sucres. Les conditions d’extraction des tannins condensés ont été optimisées en laboratoire puis le procédé a été transféré à l’échelle industrielle. Plusieurs extractions ont été menées dans trois distilleries partenaires et l’analyse chimique (en termes de polyphénols, de tannins condensés, de sucres et de matières inorganiques) des différentes fractions isolées a été réalisée. Des extraits industriels ont permis la fabrication du premier panneau de particules dont l’adhésif est constitué à 80 % de tannins de marcs de raisins et renforcé à l’aide d’une résine synthétique satisfaisant à la norme européenne de cohésion interne. Ces extraits industriels ont également partiellement substitué une résine phénol-formaldéhyde pour la production de panneaux de particules. Différents post-traitements ont été réalisés sur les extraits de marcs afin d’en augmenter la réactivité chimique vis-à-vis d’agents de réticulation. Une filtration à un seuil de coupure de 1 µm a entrainé une légère amélioration des performances adhésives, alors qu’une hydrolyse acide de l’extrait les a dégradées. Un procédé d’ultrafiltration des extraits à 5 kDa ou 1 kDa a permis d’obtenir des extraits beaucoup plus réactifs et ouvre des perspectives pour la production d’adhésifs biosourcés pour le bois / Wastes from the French wine industry are traditionally treated and upgraded in distilleries. This work deals with the study of an industrial-scale valorization of a final waste from distilleries: the spent grape pomace. Pomace from different French production areas were chemically characterized, in terms of condensed tannins and polysaccharides. An extraction process of condensed tannins has been optimized in laboratory and was then transferred to an industrial scale. Several extractions were carried out in three partner distilleries and chemical analysis (in terms of polyphenols, condensed tannins, sugars and inorganics) of the different isolated fractions were performed. Industrial extracts were used for the elaboration of the first particleboard whose adhesive constituted by 80% of grape pomace tannins and strengthened with a synthetic resin to satisfy the European standard for internal bond. These industrial extracts were also used to partially substitute a phenol-formaldehyde resin for the production of particleboards. Different post-treatments were performed on the pomace extracts in order to increase their chemical reactivity toward cross linking agents. Filtration with a cut-off of 1 µm led to a slight improvement in adhesive performances, whereas acid hydrolysis of the extract have degraded it. An ultrafiltration process of the extracts at 5 kDa or at 1 kDa enabled to get much more reactive extracts and opened up prospects for the production of bio-based adhesives for wood

Certains microorganismes qui coexistent sur la vigne, peuvent avoir des effets bénéfiques sur la qualité du vin alors que d'autres peuvent être à l'origine de déviations organoleptiques. Dans la dernière décennie, dans diverses régions viticoles de France, plusieurs odeurs de moisi ou de terre ont été mises en évidence. La (-)-géosmine a été considérée comme étant le principal composé responsable de ce défaut. Des moisissures comme Botrytis cinerea et d’autres appartenant au genre Penicillium ont été souvent isolées à partir des raisins présentant l’odeur « moisi-terreuse ». Les effets de cette molécule sur la qualité des vins a motivé notre étude sur la caractérisation des moisissures responsables de ce défaut organoleptique. A partir d'échantillons prélevés en 2007 en Bourgogne, on a identifié, par des méthodes morphologiques et moléculaires, les moisissures présentes sur les raisins, Une souche de Penicilium expansum (25.03) et deux souches de Botrytis cinerea (BC1 et BC2) ont été sélectionnées. Sur baies de raisin, la validation d’un modèle prédictif des effets combinés de la température et de l'activité de l’eau, sur la croissance des champignons, a pu être mise en oeuvre. Elle a montré, sur de larges gammes de T°C et d’aw, que les modèles cardinaux avec inflexion peuvent être validés sur les produits agro-alimentaires en utilisant le gamma concept. L’étude de l’effet du cuivre sur le taux de croissance radiale et le temps de latence des moisissures, a été entreprise afin de mieux comprendre les mécanismes de résistance au cuivre des champignons et d’en déduire des résultats pour une meilleure efficacité des fongicides. Les moisissures testées ont montré une grande tolérance au cuivre, jusqu’à 4,7 mM pour P. expansum et jusqu’à 8, 2 mM et 7,3 mM respectivement pour B. cinerea, BC1 et BC2. L’étude des effets combinés des facteurs environnementaux et nutritionnels (T°C, CO2; Cu+2) sur la production de géosmine par P. expansum, a conduit à définir les conditions minimisant la production de géosmine. Ainsi, on a pu déterminer que le cuivre (composant actif de nombreux fongicides) est un facteur clé dans la production de géosmine par P. expansum. / Some microorganisms that co-exist on the grapevine may have beneficial effects on the quality of wine whereas others may be at the origin of organoleptic deviations. In the last decade, several mouldy or earthy odors have been highlighted in various wine regions from France. (-)-geosmin was found to be the major compound responsible for this deviation, along with Botrytis cinerea and fungi belonging to the genus Penicillium, since they were frequently isolated from “earthy-musty” odor grapes. The extent of damage on the quality of wines, motivated our study on the caracterisation of grape rot fungi. First of all, the microflora of grapes from Burgundy vineyards was identified (morphological and molecular methods), from samples prelevated in 2007. A Penicilium expansum strain (25.03) and two Botrytis cinerea strains (BC1 and BC2) were chosen for further experiments. The validation of a predictive model for the combined effect of temperature and water activity, on the growth of fungi on grape berries, demonstrated that cardinal models with inflexion can be validated on agri-food products, over a wide range of T°C and aw, using the gamma concept. Further we were focused on the influence of copper on the lag time and radial growth rate of moulds in order to better understand copper resistance mechanisms of the fungi and the efficacity of fongicides. The moulds tested showed a great copper tolerance, 4.7 mM for P. expansum and 8.2 and 7.3 mM for B. cinerea strains, BC1 and BC2 respectively. These results motivated our study on the influence of environmental and nutritional factors (T°C, CO2; Cu2+), using a Doehlert matrix, on geosmin production of the fungi tested. Copper (the active component of the “Bordeaux mixture”) showed to be a key factor in the increase of geosmin production by P. expansum.

This thesis has been prepared as a partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of faster of Arts, prescribed by the College of the Pacific, Stockton, California. It is sincerely hoped that it will be found useful to all of those who are at all interested in the great industry of raisin making, which has played no small part in the building up of the great San Joaquin Valley and has been responsible for bringing the much needed irrigation system to the valley. Various types of data are here available, including personal opinions from the foremost leaders of the industry, from the results of numerous personal interviews, from technical information on acreages, prices, profits, and costs, from growers' opinions, from the California Raisin Association, the California Raisin Pool, and data from the Federal and State Departments of Agriculture. I have striven to picture the growth of the raisin industry as it actually occurred, in the building up of our state, from the most reliable sources. Efforts toward organization on the part of the grower, have been made significant and much space has bean allotted to the history of the raisin industry. It is readily evident that the producer, have had a difficult up-hill battle every step of the way, and that our present raisin organizations are the results of years of sacrifice and tireless effort, on the part of the few influential leaders. An introduction and definition of terns is placed in the first part of the thesis for the convenience of the reader. The state of California has been divided into four geographical sections, with a brief description of each. An Easterner coming to California for the first time end interested in the raisin business should have no trouble in seeing, with a small amount of reading, the relative importance of each section. What determines the California sales is discussed, a discussion which should be enlightening to the students of economics. The economic status of the raisin industry is another very significant chapter to the economist, because the results of years of research on the pert of the government and state officials ore here included. I have spent considerable tire in observing processes of growing, picking, drying and shipping of raisins; also in gathering information from, persons who were responsible for the propagation of the vines, and who were responsible for their distribution. Many growers, distributors, retailers and consumers were consulted, By account of these interviews are herein contained.

Low water activity foods (LWAF), specifically nuts and dried fruits, have been generally considered safe because they do not support the growth of foodborne pathogens. However, many pathogens have been noted to survive in LWAF for considerable periods of time, and a number of recent outbreaks and recalls have implicated various types of nuts and dried fruits. The Food Safety Modernization Act requires food processors to develop preventive control plans that make ready-to-eat LWAF safer for consumers. The presented research was designed to investigate several aspects of LWAF safety by evaluating a steam process as a strategy to remove pathogen contamination from LWAF, modeling the inactivation of such treatments, and studying the thermal resistances of two E. coli strains in low-water activity solutions. Low-temperature, vacuum-assisted steam (vacuum-steam) was evaluated as a potential intervention and preventive control to remove pathogens from the surface of LWAF without using high-heat treatments that could damage product quality. The presented work examined the efficacy of vacuum-steam (<85°C) as a means to decontaminate the surface of whole macadamia nuts, dried apricot halves, and raisins from Salmonella spp., Listeria monocytogenes, and Shiga toxin-producing Escherichia coli (STEC) contamination. The low-temperature steam treatments successfully reduced all pathogens by >4 log CFU/g from the surfaces of the foods. Additionally, Pediococcus acidilactici, proved to be a surrogate organism for these pathogens and could be used to challenge and validate similar treatments within processing plants. The data were fit to models, which showed that food type significantly impacted the fit, with the Weibull model best describing bacterial inactivation kinetics on raisins and macadamia nuts, and the Gompertz model best describing reductions on the apricot halves. The models were challenged for validation of their abilities to predict times required for 3-log reductions using internal and external datasets, determining the usefulness to industry members who wish to design similar thermal treatments for LWAF. Comparing predicted values from internally constructed models to observed values generated from external data, models were shown to be limited in scope and application and could only be applied to pathogen inactivation on different LWAF or thermal processes in certain circumstances. First-order and Weibull model predictions of bacterial reductions on dried apricots had varied success in predicting times for 3-log reductions on other thermally treated LWAF. However, the models of bacterial reductions on thermally treated macadamia nuts frequently overestimated the times required for 3-log bacterial reductions for other LWAF. In an effort to understand the effect that reduced water activity has specifically on STEC, two strains were investigated for induced thermal resistance due to osmotic stress. Thermal resistance of STEC strains (O121:H19 and O157:H7) were evaluated on the basis of strain variation, culture preparation, and water activity (D- and z-values). At the lowest treatment temperature (56°C), O121 displayed greater heat resistance than O157, and the broth-grown samples exhibited greater heat resistance than the lawn-grown cells, but significant differences were not observed at higher temperatures. Samples in reduced-water activity solutions displayed reduced thermal resistance at 56°C, but the z-values were 29-43% higher than those of high-water activity samples. While water activity has been shown to impact thermal resistance of pathogens, comparisons of STEC thermal resistance according to the D- and z-values revealed that other factors also play roles in pathogen thermal resistance on LWAF. Results from the collection of experiments conclude that efficacy of thermal treatments is impacted by the physiological state of the cells, stress experienced in the food matrix, and characteristics of the food, including water activity and composition. / Doctor of Philosophy / Consumers expect foods they purchase to be safe to consume by themselves and family members, particularly those that are ready-to-eat with no additional cooking requirements. Many of these foods are low-water activity foods (LWAF), like nuts and dried fruits, with very little water content that could be used by bacteria. These foods may be preferred snack foods due to their affordability, long shelf lives, and health benefits over other types of snack foods. Until recently, LWAF were generally considered safe because they do not support the growth of foodborne pathogens due to the lack of moisture or water within the food. However, a number of recent outbreaks related to various types of nuts and dried fruits have proven that many pathogens can survive in dried foods, even if not actively growing, for considerable amounts of time. Designed to address these types of food safety issues, the Food Safety Modernization Act recognizes risks associated with foods and responded with regulations requiring food processors to take steps to make ready-to-eat LWAF, like nuts and dried fruits, safer for consumers. A popular strategy is to treat foods with heat to destroy pathogens, however the quality attributes of some nuts and dried fruits could be damaged by high-heat treatments like roasting. An alternative process uses a vacuum to form steam at lower temperatures, allowing for efficient heat transfer through water droplets to the surface of the foods, thus causing less damage to the foods without introducing too much moisture. This research evaluated how this process could be used by food processors to remove harmful bacteria from the surfaces of whole macadamia nuts, dried apricot halves, and raisins. Results indicated that the low-temperature steam treatments successfully reduced Salmonella, Listeria monocytogenes, and Shiga toxin-producing Escherichia coli (STEC) by >4 log CFU/g (>99.99%) from the surfaces of the foods. Additionally, a nonpathogenic lactic acid bacterium, Pediococcus acidilactici, exhibited similar or greater heat tolerance, which would allow food processors to use it as a substitute, or surrogate, for in-plant studies without introducing harmful bacteria into the food processing environment. Mathematical models were used to describe the trends of bacterial death due to the steam treatments, and the results indicated that the type of food significantly impacted the reduction of bacteria. The models were tested using additional data collected within our own laboratory, as well as others. Results indicated that some of the models could be used as predictors of bacterial death for similar LWAF but can only be applied with caution and consideration for the type of food and process. Additionally, two different E. coli strains associated with outbreaks (O121:H19 and O157:H7) were investigated to understand impacts of strain variation, growth method, and water activity on thermal resistance. Some differences in heat resistance were observed between the strains and between the growth methods. Additionally, the reduced water activity seemed to decrease the bacteria's ability to withstand some heat treatments. Overall, thermal resistance studies indicated that several factors, in addition to water activity, impact pathogens' development of resistance to heat treatments. The experiments' results show that there are complex relationships between bacteria and the food they inhabit. Food processors must consider these relationships in order to design the best thermal processes to make LWAF safe for consumers.