Empathische Reaktionen auf emotionale Gesichtsausdrücke werden vom Alter beeinflusst. In Bezug auf die kognitive Komponente der Empathie wurde eine Einschränkung bei der Erkennung emotionaler Gesichtsausdrücke sowohl für ältere Beobachter als auch für ältere Gesichter berichtet. Manche Studien berichten auch einen Effekt der Alterskongruenz, d.h. eine bessere Erkennung von Emotionen bei der eigenen Altersgruppe. Das erste Ziel der vorliegenden Dissertation war es, Mechanismen, die diesen Effekten zugrunde liegen könnten, zu untersuchen. Das zweite Ziel war es, zu untersuchen, ob auch die affektive Komponente der Empathie vom Alter beeinflusst wird. Studie 1 gibt einen Überblick über frühere Forschungsarbeiten. Studie 2 beschäftigte sich mit der Rolle von altersbezogenen Antwortverzerrungen, d.h. Altersunterschieden bei der Attribuierung bestimmter Emotionen. Effekte des Alters der Beobachter und der Gesichter auf die Erkennung von Trauer waren auf Antwortverzerrungen zurückzuführen. Allerdings trat eine bessere Erkennung von Trauer bei der eigenen Altersgruppe auf, die unabhängig von Antwortverzerrungen war. Studie 3 untersuchte neuronale Prozesse, die diesem Effekt der Alterskongruenz zugrunde liegen könnten. Bei traurigen Gesichtern wurde ein Effekt der Alterskongruenz für späte Verarbeitungsstadien gefunden, der möglicherweise eine höhere Relevanz trauriger Gesichter der eigenen Altersgruppe widerspiegelt. Studie 4 untersuchte, ob auch affektive Reaktionen, gemessen mit Gesichtsmimikry, vom Alter beeinflusst werden. Ältere Beobachter zeigten eine Beeinträchtigung in der Emotionserkennung, nicht jedoch in den affektiven Reaktionen. Insgesamt weisen diese Ergebnisse auf altersbezogene Defizite bei kognitiven und neuronalen Reaktionen hin; allerdings gab es kaum Alterseffekte auf affektive Reaktionen. Also lassen die Ergebnisse insgesamt trotz Schwierigkeiten bei der Emotionserkennung Optimismus bezüglich der intergenerationalen Empathie zu. / Empathic reactions to emotional facial expressions differ according to age. Concerning the cognitive component of empathy, decoding of emotional facial expressions was reported to be impaired both for older observers and older faces. Some studies also reported an own-age advantage, i.e., higher decoding accuracy for the own compared with other age groups. The first aim of the present dissertation was to explore possible mechanisms underlying these age effects. The second aim was to explore whether the affective component of empathy is affected by age as well. Study 1 summarizes previous research. Study 2 explored the role of age-related response bias, that is, age differences in the attribution of specific emotions. It showed that effects of the observers'' and the faces'' ages on decoding sadness were due to age-related response bias. However, an own-age advantage on decoding sadness occurred, which was independent of response bias. Study 3 explored the neurofunctional processes underlying this own-age advantage. It revealed an own-age effect on late processing stages for sadness, which may be due to an enhanced relevance of sad own-age faces. Study 4 explored whether affective responding in terms of facial mimicry is affected by age as well. It revealed an age-related decline in decoding accuracy, but not in affective responding. Taken together, these results suggest age-related deficits in cognitive and neural responses to emotional facial expressions. However, age had little influence on affective responding. Thus, despite difficulties in emotion decoding, these results allow for some optimism regarding intergenerational empathy.

Abstract Study samples in medical research are selected according to the objectives of the studies. Researchers seek to collect data as extensively and reliably as possible. In practice, however, data are often missing or may be incorrect. This thesis covers some of the problems concerning missing data and data collection in psychiatric research. Methods for adjusting for missing data and for evaluating the reliability of data are presented. The data originate from the Northern Finland 1966 Birth Cohort (N = 12058). This study explored how participation in an epidemiologic study that includes questionnaires and a clinical examination is affected by mental health (N = 11540), and whether non-participants experience more severe clinical symptoms than participants in a psychiatric field study (N = 145) among subjects with a psychosis. Inverse probability weighting (IPW) was used to adjust for non-participation in comparisons of brain volumes between schizophrenia and control groups. The precision of self-reported medication use was also explored (N = 7625). In an epidemiologic study of all cohort members, subjects with a psychiatric disorder participated less actively than those without one. In the psychiatric field study, non participants were more often patients with schizophrenia than other psychoses. The psychiatric symptoms of non-participants were more severe and they needed more hospital care than participants. The use of IPW led to higher estimates of cerebrospinal fluid volume and lower estimates of grey and white matter volumes in schizophrenia patients, and increased the statistical significance of the differences in brain volume estimates between the schizophrenia and control groups. The precision of self-reported data on psychoactive medication use was substantial. Due to non-participation, the true prevalence of psychiatric disorders is probably higher than the prevalence estimates from field studies that are based on data provided by participants only. In order to reflect the true differences in the target population, weighting methods can be used to improve estimates affected by non-participation. Regarding psychoactive medication use, data collected by postal questionnaire can be assumed accurate enough for study purposes. However, it may underestimate the prevalence of medication use due to non-participation. / Abstract Tutkimusaineisto valitaan tutkimuksen tavoitteiden perusteella. Tavoitteena on kerätä kattava ja virheetön aineisto. Käytännössä kuitenkin osa tiedoista voi puuttua tai olla virheellistä. Tässä väitöskirjassa esitellään yleisesti menetelmiä huomioida puuttuva tieto analyyseissä ja arvioida aineistojen luotettavuutta psykiatrisessa tutkimuksessa. Aineisto perustuu Pohjois-Suomen vuoden 1966 syntymäkohorttiin (N = 12058). Väitöskirjassa tutkittiin, miten psykiatrinen sairastavuus vaikuttaa osallistumiseen epidemiologisessa tutkimuksessa, joka sisälsi kyselyitä ja terveystutkimuksen (N = 11540), sekä erosiko psykiatriseen kenttätutkimukseen osallistuneiden ja osallistumattomien psykoosipotilaiden kliininen taudinkuva toisistaan (N = 145). Käänteisen todennäköisyyden painotusmenetelmää käytettiin korjaamaan puuttuvan tiedon aiheuttamaa virhettä aivovolyymien estimaateissa skitsofreniapotilailla. Lisäksi arvioitiin itse ilmoitetun lääkekäyttötiedon luotettavuutta (N = 7625). Epidemiologisessa tutkimuksessa ne kohortin jäsenet, joilla oli jokin psykiatrinen sairaus, osallistuivat passiivisemmin kuin ne, joilla ei ollut psykiatrista sairautta. Psykoosipotilaat, jotka eivät osallistuneet psykiatriseen kenttätutkimukseen, sairastivat tutkimukseen osallistuneita useammin skitsofreniaa kuin muita psykooseja ja heidän taudinkuvansa oli vakavampi. Painottaminen kasvatti aivonesteen ja alensi harmaan ja valkean aineen tilavuuksien estimaatteja skitsofreniapotilailla, ja lisäsi aivovolyymien erojen tilastollista merkitsevyyttä skitsofreniapotilaiden ja vertailuhenkilöiden välillä. Itse ilmoitetun psykoaktiivisten lääkkeiden käyttötiedon luotettavuus oli merkittävä. Kadosta johtuen psykiatristen sairauksien todellinen vallitsevuus on todennäköisesti korkeampi kuin vallitsevuuden estimaatit, jotka on laskettu tutkimukseen osallistuneiden tiedoista. Painotusmenetelmiä voidaan käyttää parantamaan puuttuvan tiedon vääristämiä estimaatteja, koska painottamalla huomioidaan todellisia eroja kohdeväestössä. Tutkittaessa lääkekäyttötietoa postikyselyillä kerätyn aineiston voidaan olettaa olevan laadultaan riittävä tutkimustarpeisiin.

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Lors d'une évaluation neuropsychologique, il est attendu du patient une mobilisation optimale de ses capacités cognitives, afin d’objectiver de la façon la plus précise possible son tableau clinique. Sa collaboration et son implication au cours de l'examen sont en effet fondamentales puisqu’elles participent fortement à la validité de ses résultats, et de ce fait à la solidité des conclusions diagnostiques. Le biais de réponse se définit aujourd’hui comme l’ensemble des comportements visant à intentionnellement modifier ses performances cognitives. Malgré une abondante littérature sur ce concept au cours des deux dernières décennies, plusieurs questions perdurent, particulièrement en regard de ses aspects qualitatifs et des mécanismes associés. A travers quatre études, ce projet de thèse a tenté de répondre à ces problématiques, en apportant des connaissances complémentaires sur le biais de réponse. Une première expérimentation s’est ainsi intéressée à préciser la nature des comportements liés au biais de réponse, en l’explorant de façon originale dans plusieurs domaines cognitifs et au sein d’un échantillon mixte, incluant notamment des patients présentant une altération cognitive. Elle a permis de mettre en lumière un large répertoire de ses manifestations, et a apporté des arguments en faveur d’une participation de facteurs cognitifs dans la production du biais de réponse. Les deux études suivantes se sont vouées à adapter et valider trois outils psychométriques spécifiques à l’évaluation du biais de réponse (Performance Validity Tests), en testant leur pertinence et leur efficacité dans une large population francophone clinique et générale. Enfin, le dernier volet a cherché à comprendre le rôle joué par les facteurs associés au biais de réponse, en analysant son lien avec les processus exécutifs et métacognitifs. L’analyse des observations a alors confirmé l’existence d’une influence du fonctionnement exécutif dans le biais de réponse. L’ensemble des résultats recueillis à l’issue de ce travail souligne la complexité et la richesse du biais de réponse et permet de suggérer une nouvelle modélisation de ce concept, tenant compte de son caractère multidimensionnel et possiblement multifactoriel. / During a neuropsychological evaluation, optimal mobilization of the patient’s cognitive capacities is required in order to accurately objectify their clinical picture. The collaboration and involvement of the patient during the examination are fundamental to the validity of the results and hence the strength of the diagnostic. The current definition of response bias is the set of behaviours intended to intentionally modify one's cognitive performances. Despite an extensive literature on this concept over the last two decades, several questions remain, particularly regarding the qualitative aspects and the associated mechanisms. Through four studies, this dissertation has tried to answer these issues by providing complementary knowledge on response bias. The first experiment aimed to clarify the nature of behaviours related to response bias, in several cognitive domains and in a mixed sample including patients with cognitive impairment. This has shed light on a broad repertoire of its manifestations and has provided arguments for the participation of cognitive factors in the production of response bias. The following two studies have adapted and validated three specific psychometric tools known as Performance Validity Tests, by testing their relevance and effectiveness in large French-speaking samples including neurological patients and the general population. Finally, the last part sought to understand the role played by the factors associated with response bias, by analysing its link with the executive and metacognitive processes. The observations analysis has confirmed the existence of an impact of the executive functioning in response bias. All the results gathered underline the complexity and richness of response bias and suggest a new modelling of this concept, considering its multidimensional and possibly multifactorial nature.

Due to the intrauterine environment required to maintain pregnancy it may be that neonatal animals are born type-2 immune response (IR) biased, which consequently may increase susceptibility to certain infectious and immune mediated diseases, such as allergy. Recently, the prevalence of both allergic and autoimmune diseases has increased, leading to the development of the hygiene hypothesis. The hypothesis states that lack of early environmental stimulus leading to inappropriate development and bias in IR, may contribute to this increase. The objectives of this thesis, therefore, were to: (a) Determine the IR bias of neonatal pigs. (b) Investigate the effect of heat-killed Escherichia coli, lipopolysaccharide (LPS) and muramyl dipeptide (MDP) on the IR phenotype and the frequency of allergy in pigs sensitized to the egg white allergen ovomucoid (Ovm). (c) Establish IR phenotypes of pigs allergic or clinically tolerant to Ovm. Immune response bias was determined using an established phenotyping protocol and compared between two groups of pigs, (A) and (B). A difference in IR bias was observed. Bias in IR was not consistently towards type-2. Increase in indicators of type-1 IR, were greater in A and the frequency of type-2 IR correlates were greater in B. It’s likely that unidentified environmental variables may have induced this change, although etiology was not pursued. Treatment with heat-killed Escherichia coli, LPS and MDP had an effect on IR bias and frequency of allergy. Muramyl dipeptide-treatments promoted type-2 bias and were associated with increased frequency of allergy. Pre-treatment with E. coli did not affect allergic frequency, but did elicit the production of a relatively balanced allergen-specific IR phenotype. Lipopolysaccharide-pre-treatment was associated with decreased frequency of allergy. Correlates of an allergic IR phenotype in pigs were also established. The measurement of allergen-specific IgG, IgG1 and/or IgE activity and evaluation of late-phase intradermal skin tests were proposed to be useful in identifying allergic IR phenotypes. This thesis emphasizes the importance of considering the potential for variation in IR in terms of pig health and experimental reproducibility. Further, given the physiological similarities of pigs and humans, these findings may be extended to studies of food allergy in humans. / NSERC, OMAFRA, Ontario Pork, AllerGen NCE

Accurate self-report assessment of psychopathology depends on individuals responding honestly and accurately. Some respondents, however, may respond in a manner not representative of their traits/symptoms. The MMPI-2-RF contains “validity” scales to detect elevations on over-reporting (OR) or under-reporting (UR) scales which typically correspond to elevations on MMPI-2-RF substantive scales and on instruments administered alongside the MMPI-2-RF. We examined effects of OR and UR on the Personality Inventory for DSM-5 (PID-5); a self-report instrument that assesses 25 pathological traits used with other diagnostic criteria to diagnose personality disorders (PDs) in Section III of the DSM-5. Using MMPI-2-RF validity scale scores, 908 students and 255 psychiatric outpatients were classified into OR, UR or within normal limit response groups. Significant group differences were found such that differences in the frequency of PD diagnosis emerged across response groups. We believe the PID-5 is vulnerable to OR and UR responding, which potentially compromises its validity.

Accurate self-report assessment of psychopathology depends on individuals responding honestly and accurately. Some respondents, however, may respond in a manner not representative of their traits/symptoms. The MMPI-2-RF contains “validity” scales to detect elevations on over-reporting (OR) or under-reporting (UR) scales which typically correspond to elevations on MMPI-2-RF substantive scales and on instruments administered alongside the MMPI-2-RF. We examined effects of OR and UR on the Personality Inventory for DSM-5 (PID-5); a self-report instrument that assesses 25 pathological traits used with other diagnostic criteria to diagnose personality disorders (PDs) in Section III of the DSM-5. Using MMPI-2-RF validity scale scores, 908 students and 255 psychiatric outpatients were classified into OR, UR or within normal limit response groups. Significant group differences were found such that differences in the frequency of PD diagnosis emerged across response groups. We believe the PID-5 is vulnerable to OR and UR responding, which potentially compromises its validity.

iv Abstract This thesis uncovers the long-term development of overweight and obesity prevalence in the Czech Republic and finds the associations with relevant lifestyle risk factors and determinants of health. Periodically collected interview and examination survey data from 1993 to 2019 are standardised and used to perform a pooled analysis to inspect trends within the cross-sectional units. The binomial logistic regression is used to estimate changes in the odds of being overweight given a set of socio-economic and lifestyle-related predictors, and to inspect time trends in their magnitude and significance. Adjustment to historical data is calculated to account for methodological changes in BMI classification scheme to ensure comparability of survey outcomes. In addition, the response bias in self-reported anthropometric measurements is confirmed and quantified. Finally, the most recent data (2019) for obesity rates are updated accordingly to reflect this finding. The true prevalence of overweight in the Czech adult population is calculated to 75.8% for men and 58.8% for women, which is higher than interview survey results by 7.7 and 9.6 percentage points respectively. These adjusted results may be utilised by users of survey outcomes to build their analyses on validated data, together with other...

Non-response is an error common to most surveys. In this dissertation, the error of non-response is described in terms of its sources and its contribution to the Mean Square Error of survey estimates. Various response and completion rates are defined. Techniques are examined that can be used to identify the extent of nonresponse bias in surveys. Methods to identify auxiliary variables for use in nonresponse adjustment procedures are described. Strategies for dealing with nonresponse are classified into two types, namely preventive strategies and post hoc adjustments of data. Preventive strategies discussed include the use of call-backs and follow-ups and the selection of a probability sub-sample of non-respondents for intensive follow-ups. Post hoc adjustments discussed include population and sample weighting adjustments and raking ratio estimation to compensate for unit non-response as well as various imputation methods to compensate for item non-response. / Mathematical Sciences / M. Com. (Statistics)

Non-response is an error common to most surveys. In this dissertation, the error of non-response is described in terms of its sources and its contribution to the Mean Square Error of survey estimates. Various response and completion rates are defined. Techniques are examined that can be used to identify the extent of nonresponse bias in surveys. Methods to identify auxiliary variables for use in nonresponse adjustment procedures are described. Strategies for dealing with nonresponse are classified into two types, namely preventive strategies and post hoc adjustments of data. Preventive strategies discussed include the use of call-backs and follow-ups and the selection of a probability sub-sample of non-respondents for intensive follow-ups. Post hoc adjustments discussed include population and sample weighting adjustments and raking ratio estimation to compensate for unit non-response as well as various imputation methods to compensate for item non-response. / Mathematical Sciences / M. Com. (Statistics)