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Sammanfattning   Titel: Avkastningskrav och riskpreferenser – En studie om sambandet mellan ägarnas avkastningskrav och företagsledningens riskpreferenser.   Nivå: Examensarbete på kandidatnivå i företagsekonomi   Författare: Pontus Gelin   Handledare: Peter Lindberg   Datum: Februari 2019   Syfte: Syftet med denna studie är att undersöka om det finns ett samband mellan ägarnas avkastningskrav och en kvinnlig verkställande direktör.   Metod: Kvantitativ forskningsdesign med multipel linjär regressionsanalys.   Resultat och slutsats: Det går inte att fastställa någon korrelation mellan ägarnas avkastningskrav och en kvinnlig verkställande direktör. Resultatet visar på att den eventuella risken, som en kvinnlig vd medför, har diversifierats bort av investerare.   Vidare forskning: En given fortsättning på studien vore en kategorisering av aktuella bolag, där de bolagen med en kvinnlig vd ställs mot övriga. Detta test skulle visa på om ägarnas avkastningskrav är lägre för de bolag som har en kvinnlig vd, än övriga.   Nyckelord: Avkastningskrav, kapitalstruktur, risk, CAPM, betavärde (β), verkställande direktör (vd), riskpreferenser.

This thesis is an investigation of how subjects behave in an individual binary choice decision task with the option to purchase or observe for free additional information before reaching a decision. In part 1 of this thesis, an investigative study is conducted with the intent to sharpen the view to literature concerning corresponding psychology and economics experiments designed to test decision tasks that involve purchasing and observing information from an imperfect message prior to taking a terminal action choice. This investigative study identifies areas of research that warrant further investigation as well as provides enhancements for execution in the subsequent experiment conducted in Part 2 & 3 of this thesis. In Part 2 & 3, I conduct an experiment to test how subjects behave in an individual binary choice decision task with the option to purchase or observe for free additional information before reaching a final decision. I find that subjects’ behaviour over time converges toward optimal decisions prior to observing an imperfect information signal. However, when subjects observe an imperfect information signal prior to their terminal choice there is greater deviation from optimal behaviour. I find in addition to behaviour that is reflective of a risk-neutral BEU maximizer, status quo bias, over-weighing the informational value of the message received and past statistically independent outcomes influencing future choices. The subjects’ willingness to pay (WTP) to use the additional information gathered from an imperfect message service when making a final decision was on average less than the risk neutral BEU willingness to pay benchmark. Moreover, as the informative value of the message increased, causing the BEU valuation to increase, subjects under-estimated the value of the message signal to a greater degree. Although risk attitudes may have influenced the subjects’ WTP decisions, it does not account for the increased conservative WTP behaviour when information became more valuable. Additionally, the findings from this study suggest that individuals adopt different decision rules depending on both personal attributes (i.e. skillset, gender, experience) and on the context and environment in which the decision task is conducted. / SSHRC grant: Social Sciences and Humanities Research Council via Dr. Bram Cadsby Professor Department of Economics, University of Guelph

This dissertation is a collection of essays (chapters) on behavioral economics. Behavioral economics—arguably one of the most influential innovations in economics over the last 20 years—is a research paradigm introducing psychologically more realistic assumptions into economics. A common theme throughout the dissertation is the focus on either biased beliefs, or heterogeneous preferences, or both. The first chapter serves as an introduction to some themes in behavioral economics and its implications for market outcomes in industrial organization settings. The next two chapters are theoretical papers on entrepreneurial and managerial overconfidence that can also be thought of as contributions to this newly emerging field of behavioral industrial organization. The last chapter is an empirical contribution on gender differences in preferences and economic behavior at a young age. / <p>Diss. Stockholm : Handelshögskolan, 2011</p>

This study investigates if attitudes towards the pandemic recommendations made by the Public Health Agency of Sweden and if the estimation of their duration differ before and after a Covid-19 vaccination. The participants contributed to the study by filling out a questionnaire. A mass vaccination is a rare occurrence and few empirical studies have been conducted. A risk regarding a mass vaccination is that it can result in a premature relaxed mindset towards the recommendations, which can lead to an increased spread of the virus. To investigate this, we compared the responses from the participants who filled out the questionnaire before and after the Covid-19 vaccination. The results showed no differences in the attitudes towards the recommendations in the two groups, however tendencies of differences regarding the estimation of duration of the pandemic recommendations was discovered. Thus, we could not detect any large effects of a more relaxed mindset towards the recommendations, however we cannot exclude smaller effects. The results do not support that stricter recommendations should be introduced in order to counteract a more relaxed attitude. / Studien ämnar undersöka om inställningen till Folkhälsomyndighetens rekommendationer och uppskattningen av pandemirekommendationernas varaktighet skiljer sig åt före respektive efter vaccination mot covid-19. Deltagarna medverkade i studien genom att svara på ett frågeformulär.En massvaccinering är en sällsynt förekomst och få empiriska studier har genomförts. En risk vidgenomförandet av en massvaccinering är att den kan resultera i en för tidigt avslappnad inställning till rekommendationerna, vilket kan leda till en ökad smittspridning i samhället. Resultatet visade inte på några skillnader i inställningen till rekommendationerna mellan de två grupperna, dock fanns det tendenser till skillnader angående uppskattningen av pandemirekommendationernasvaraktighet. Således, utifrån studiens resultat, påvisades inte någon stor effekt av en avslappnad inställning efter en massvaccinering men det går inte att utesluta mindre effekter. Studiens resultatstyrker inte att strängare rekommendationer bör införas i en vaccinationsfas för att motverka en avslappnad inställning.

Diese Dissertation erforscht, auf welchen unterschiedlichen Wegen Informationsverarbeitung Investitionsentscheidungen beeinflusst. Auf der Basis kontrollierter Laborexperimente wird untersucht, wie Entscheidungen mit der Art der Information sowie mit dem Entscheidungskontext variieren. Im ersten Kapitel legt ein Experiment die Schwierigkeit mit hypothetischem Denken bzw. mit dem Lernen aus hypothetischen Ereignissen offen. Im Kapitel Zwei untersucht ein anderes Experiment, wie Informationsverarbeitung die Reaktionen der Investoren auf Ambiguität verändert, denn ein eindeutiges, optimales Lernverhalten gibt es unter Ambiguität nicht. Das letzte Kapitel stellt anhand desselben Experiments die Unabhängigkeit zwischen dem Lernprozess und den Risikopräferenzen in Frage. / This dissertation investigates various channels through which information processing affects investment decisions. Controlled laboratory experiments allow for studying how subjects’ decisions vary with the type of information and the decision-context. The experiment in the first chapter discloses the difficulty with contingent reasoning, i.e. learning from hypothetical events. A different experiment in Chapter Two analyzes how information processing changes investors’ reactions to ambiguity—an environment with multiple rational learning rules. Using the same experiment, the last chapter questions the independence between belief updating and risk preferences.

Diss. Stockholm : Handelshögskolan, 2009 Sammanfattning jämte 6 uppsatser

Understanding the behavior of those who start--or intend to start--a business is vital for a country of entrepreneurs such as Peru, which registered the third highest rate of active entrepreneurship worldwide in 2011, according to the Global Entrepreneurship Monitor (GEM). However, Peru also registered, in 2011, one of the highest business discontinuation rates among efficiency-based and resource-based economies. This study represents the first effort to analyze certain behavioral characteristics (risk aversion, joy of winning, overconfidence and tax collection) of a sample of necessity-driven entrepreneurs in Lima, Peru. These features might help explain, in the first place, the decision to become entrepreneurs, but also the decision to leave the market. In particular, wefind that entrepreneurs are risk averse, tend to overestimate their abilities and are willing to work harder when the gross pay is higher (and are taxed) than when it is lower (and are not taxed). Altogether, these traits may explain the high discontinuation rate of businesses in Peru, one of the highest in efficiency-based and resource-based economies. / Entender el comportamiento de aquellos que empiezan —o pretenden empezar— un negocio es vital para un país de emprendedores así como el Perú, el cual registró la tercera tasa más alta de emprededeurismo activo a nivel mundial en 2011, de acuerdo con el Global Entrepreneurship Monitor (GEM). Sin embargo, el Perú también registró, el año 2011, una de las tasas más altas de descontinuación de negocios entre las economías basadas en la eficiencias y recursos. Este estudio representa el primer intento en analizar ciertas características de conducta (aversión al riesgo, alegría por el triunfo, confianza excesiva y el pago de impuestos) de una muestra de emprendedoresmotivados por la necesidad en Lima, Perú. Estas características puede que ayuden a explicar, en primer lugar, la decisión de devenir emprendedores, pero también la decisión de dejar el mercado. En particular, nos encontramos con que los emprendedores son adversos al riesgo, tienden a sobrestimar sus habilidades y están dispuestos a trabajar más duro cuando el pago bruto es mayor (y está sujeto a impuestos) que cuando es menor (y no está sujeto a impuestos). En suma, estas características pueden explicar la alta tasa de descontinuación de negocios en el Perú, una de las más altas en economías basadas en la eficiencia o en recursos.

La théorie de l’utilité actualisée proposée par Samuelson (1937) est un des paradigmes dominants en économie et en gestion particulièrement en finance où elle sert de socle, entre autres, au Modèle Intertemporel d’Equilibre des Actifs (ICAPM) et à sa version incluant la consommation (ICCAPM). En dépit de cette place, sa validité pour expliquer les préférences temporelles des individus a été questionnée dans des travaux de recherche récents ouvrant la voie à des amendements et à la remise en cause de ce cadre d’analyse. Ces travaux ont introduit, entre autres, le concept de structure par terme du taux d’escompte psychologique. La littérature a proposé sept alternatives à la fonction d’escompte exponentielle contenue dans la version initiale de la théorie de l’utilité actualisée. Il s’agit des fonctions d’escompte de Hernstein, de Harvey, Proportionnelle, de Laibson, de Rachlin, Hyperbolique et Hyperbolique généralisée.Faisant suite à ces travaux, nous avons initié une recherche visant à apporter une réponse à la question relatives aux caractéristiques de la structure par terme du taux d’escompte psychologique d’un individu et les facteurs qui expliquent sa différence d’un individu à l’autre ; ses liens avec les autres dimensions des préférences (face au risque et sociales) individuelles sont explorés par la suite. Il s’est agi d’identifier parmi ces fonctions celles qui sont cohérentes avec les préférences individuelles observées, d’estimer les paramètres associés, d’étudier la cohérence des préférences temporelles d’un individu. Elle s’appuie sur les données issues d’une étude expérimentale basée sur dix huit arbitrages inter-temporels, quatre arbitrages de loteries, le jeu du dictateur, le jeu de l’ultimatum et le jeu de confiance.L’analyse des données a permis de confirmer les résultats précédents sur la violation de la constance du prix psychologique du temps, la cohérence par domaine des préférences temporelles, d’établir que la population étudiée est caractérisée par une hétérogénéité par rapport à la forme de la structure par terme du taux d’escompte psychologique. Les individus sont caractérisés par une fonction d’escompte psychologique de Hernstein, hyperbolique généralisée ou de Laibson. Nous avons trouvé que les caractéristiques démographiques, l’environnement social et l’orientation temporelle expliquent peu les différences de structure par terme de taux d’escompte psychologique. Les différences de niveaux d’application (dimension des traits de personnalités) sont les principaux déterminants de la différence de structure par terme de taux d’escompte psychologique caractéristiques des préférences temporelles. Nous avons enfin établi qu’il existe une faible relation entre les paramètres des préférences temporelles, face au risque et sociales.L’ensemble de ces analyses nous ont permis de dériver des conclusions par rapport aux hypothèses de recherche que nous avons formulées et d’interroger la validité de chacune d’elles dans la perspective de déduire les réponses à la problématique de notre recherche. / The discounted utility theory proposed by Samuelson (1937) is one of the dominant paradigms in economics and management especially in finance where it serves as a basis of the Intertemporal Capital Asset Pricing Model (ICAPM) and its version including consumption (ICCAPM). Despite this place, its validity has a framework to explain individuals time preferences has been questioned in recents researches paving the way for amendments and questionings of this framework. Among others, these reseaches introduce the concept of term structure of psychological discount rate. Therefore, a part from exponential discount rate function, we find in the literature seven alternatives discount rate function : Hernstein, proportional, Laibson, Rachlin, Hyperbolic and generalized hyperbolic.Following this work, we initiated a research to provide an answer to the question on the characteristics and driving factors those explain its heterogeneity at an individual level. Thereafter, its relationship with other dimensions of individual preferences (risk and social interaction behavior) are explored. The purpose is to identify among them, the function that is consistent with the observed time preferences, to estimate the underlying parameters and to study the consistency of individual time preference. This research is based on the data collected by experimental study using eighteen time trade-offs, four lottery trade-offs, a dictator game, an ultimatum game and a trust game.Data analysis confirmed previous results on the violation of the time invariant of the psychological value of time hypothesis and established that the studied population is characterized by an heterogeneity with respect to the form of the term structure of psychological discount rate. Individuals are characterized by an Hernstein, Generalized hyperbolic or Laibson psychological discount rate. We found that demographic, social and temporal orientation have a weak link with the individual differences of the term structure of psychological discount rate. Application (a dimension of personality traits) is the most important driving factor of term structure of psychological discount rate forms heterogeneity. We finally established that there is a weak relationship between the parameters of time, risk and social preferences.