Agriculture is, after fossil fuels, the second largest producer of greenhouse gas emissions, which are responsible for global climate change, and it is necessary to look for ways to reduce this environmental load. Cereals are the most cultivated crops in the world, so it is appropriate to examine their share of this load. The aim of the thesis was to evaluate and compare the environmental aspects of the cultivation of selected cereals (wheat, rye and barley) in the conventional and ecological farming system. The resulting environmental load was first calculated on 1 kg of grain, and then the load was recalculated to a load of 1 kg of protein contained in grain of selected cereals. Protein content in grain is one of the grain quality indicators. A simplified LCA method has been used for the environmental load calculations. This method is used for environmental impact assessments and covers the whole life cycle of the product.

Denna studie behandlar upptaget av de hälsovådliga metallerna bly, kadmium, tallium, torium och uran i några viktiga grödor som vete, råg, potatis och sallat som används för humankonsumtion. Syftet var att studera faktorer och mekanismer som kan påverka grödornas upptag av dessa metaller. Målsättningen var även att utröna hur stor påverkan dessa faktorer har på grödornas upptag av Pb, Cd, Tl, Th och U. En litteraturstudie visade att de domesticerade grödorna vete, potatis, råg och sallat tar upp Pb, Cd, Tl, Th och U. Upptaget är störst hos sallat och potatis, förhöjda koncentrationer i åkermarken medför därför en ökad risk för att hälsovådliga koncentrationer återfinns i grödan. En ökad metallkoncentration av dessa grundämnen i marklösning och odlingssubstrat ger oftast högre metallkoncentrationer i aktuell gröda. De högsta koncentrationerna återfinns oftast i rötterna. Oorganiskt fosfatgödsel kan innehålla Pb, Cd, Tl, Th och U beroende på typ av råvara. Studier visar att fosfatgödsels kadmiuminnehåll åtminstone ger en ökad kadmiumhalt i grödor som råg, vete, potatis och sallat. En ökad användning av fosfatgödsel tycks även ge högre halter av torium och uran i vete. Stallgödsel från nötkreatur kan minska upptaget av bly och kadmium och arbuskulär mykorrhizasvamp kan binda metaller som bly och kadmium till rotvävnader och på så vis minska upptaget i växtdelar som används för humankonsumtion. Vetes upptag av kadmium och uran studerades i en experimentell hydroponisk dosstudie. Resultaten från den experimentella studien indikerade att förhöjd kadmiumhalt och urankoncentration i näringslösning kan ha gett upphov till förhöjda halter i vete, vilket i sin tur kan ha påverkat plantans tillväxt. I uranprovserien fastställdes att perlit tog upp uran. Utifrån data från försöken beräknades fördelningskonstanten Kd för löst uran/uranhalt i perlit. I denna provserie visade beräkningar att roten genom en aktiv process tog upp uran från näringslösningen. Resultaten indikerar att det finns risker med att äta grödor som odlats i jordar med höga halter av Pb, Cd, Tl, Th eller U. Hälsovådliga koncentrationer kan nås utan att något synligt symtom på kontaminering eller förgiftning hos grödan. / This study deals with the uptake of noxious metals lead, cadmium, thallium, thorium and uranium in some important crops such as wheat, rye, potatoes, and lettuce that are used for human consumption. The aim was to study factors and mechanisms that influence crop uptake of these metals. Another objective was also to define the impact of these factors on crop uptake of Pb, Cd, Tl, Th and U.  According to a literature review domesticated crops such as wheat, potatoes, rye, and lettuce take up Pb, Cd, Tl, Th and U. Lettuce and potatoes are the crop with the highest uptake. Elevated metal concentrations in arable land therefore entails a greater risk for harmful concentrations found in potato and lettuce. Increased concentrations of these elements in soil solution and growing medium usually give higher metal concentrations in the current crop. The highest concentrations are found mostly in the roots. Phosphate fertilizers may contain Pb, Cd, Tl, Th and U depending on the type of raw material used for manufacturing. Studies show that the cadmium content in phosphate fertilizer can give an increased cadmium content in crops such as rye, wheat, potatoes and lettuce. An increased use of phosphate fertilizers also appears to give higher levels of thorium and uranium in wheat. Animal manure from cattle may reduce the uptake of lead and cadmium and arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi can bind metals such as lead and cadmium to rot tissues and thus reduce the accumulation in plant parts used for human consumption. Wheat uptake of cadmium and uranium was studied in an experimental hydroponic dose study. The results of the experimental study indicated that elevated cadmium and uranium content in the nutrient solution increased the content of the element in the plant, which in turn may have affected the growth of the plant. The uranium sample series showed that perlite adsorbed uranium. Based on data from the trials the distribution constant Kd for dissolved uranium / uranium content in perlite was calculated. The results from the uranium sample series showed that the root through an active process took up uranium from the nutrient solution. The results indicate that there are risks associated with eating crops grown in soils with high levels of Pb, Cd, Tl, Th and U. Hazardous concentrations may be reached in the crops with no visible signs of contamination or poisoning.

Increasing food, feed, fiber, biofuel production on decreasing amounts of arable land while simultaneously enhancing ecosystem services is challenging. Strategic inclusion of winter rye (<i>Secale cereale</i>) for biomass, silage, grain and Kura clover (<i>Trifolium ambiguum</i>) living mulch into existing Midwestern cropping systems may offer alternative economic income for farmers without displacing or reducing yields of primary crops. Research was conducted at the Purdue Water Quality Field Station (WQFS) where net balances of water, carbon, nitrogen, and radiation can be measured, and greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions are monitored. The agronomic performance of a corn-soybean rotation and continuous corn (controls) were compared to novel systems that included the use of rye cover cropping and Kura clover co-cropping. Rye was harvested for biomass/silage at heading immediately followed by corn or soybean planting. Continuous corn receiving 69 kg N ha^-1was planted into an establishment of Kura clover sod. Controls included these same systems without the rye or clover. GHG samples were taken via the static chamber method and tile-drained water sub-samples were collected, analyzed for nitrate, and load losses calculated. Biomass composition was determined and used to calculate herbage theoretical ethanol (EtOH) yields. Cereal rye did not significantly decrease corn or soybean grain yield. Averaged across years, Kura clover significantly depressed corn grain yields by nearly 70%. Kura clover significantly reduced flow-weighted tile drainage nitrate (NO₃^-) concentrations, however cereal rye did not. Reductions in flow-weighted tile drainage nitrate (NO₃^-) concentrations were found to largely occur during Quarter two (April, May, June). Cover crops did not significantly reduce annual tile drained NO₃^- load losses in most cases, however, they did significantly reduce annual N₂O emissions. Cumulative annual CH₄ emissions were not significantly altered. Annual CO₂emissions were higher after the introduction of Kura clover and not significantly altered following the introduction of cereal rye. Averaged across years, theoretical ethanol yields in the Kura clover system produced 2,752 L EtOH ha^-1, whereas EtOH production in cereal rye systems ranged from 3,245 to 4,210 L EtOH ha^-1. Theoretical ethanol yields of continuous corn and rotational controls ranged from 2,982 to 3505 L EtOH ha^-1 for these same systems without the cereal rye of Kura clover. These data suggest that a multipurpose approach to cover crop inclusion can provide both environmental and economic advantages worthy of consideration.

In den Pflanzenzellwänden befindliche Polysaccharide stehen dem Prozess nur bedingt als Energiequelle zur Verfügung, da diese in einem Komplex mit Lignin verknüpft sind. Um diese Substanzen für den Biogasprozess verfügbar zu machen und demnach den Substratumsatz bzw. die Prozesseffizienz zu erhöhen, sind geeignete Stoffe oder Techniken einzusetzen bzw. zu entwickeln. In dieser Arbeit wurde zielführend der Einsatz von unterschiedlichen Enzympräparaten in drei verschiedenen Prozessstufen bei ausgewählten Energiepflanzen mit variierender Häcksellänge untersucht. Anhand von Enzymaktivitätsbestimmungen konnten Enzympräparate für die einzelnen Stufen selektiert werden. Die ausgewählten Enzyme wurden einzeln oder in Mischung während der Silierung, direkt vor dem Biogasprozess sowie während des Biogasprozesses zum Substrat dotiert und dieses nach der jeweiligen Vorbehandlung in Batch-Gärtests vergoren. Neben der Biogas- und Methanausbeute wurde zur Bewertung der Enzymleistung der Abbau an Lignocellulose sowie die Freisetzung an niedermolekularen Kohlenhydraten ermittelt. Zusätzlich wurde das Quellen der Lignocellulose mit Hilfe eines Wasserzusatzes in Form einer Vorhydrolyse als Vorbehandlungsmethode mit allgemein positivem Ergebnis geprüft. Das Ziel der verbesserten Substratumsetzung bei Mais und Roggen und folglich einer Erhöhung der Biogasproduktion wurde durch den Zusatz ausgewählter Enzympräparate erreicht. Es konnten Grundlagen bezüglich der Wirkung von Enzymen in Biogasprozessen geschaffen werden, anhand derer deutlich wurde, dass besonders die enzymatische Behandlung in den der Methanisierung vorgelagerten Prozessstufen weiterzuentwickeln ist. / Polysaccharides of plant cell walls are of limited digestibility due to their cross-linking to lignin. In order to make the molecules available for the biogas process and thus increase the substrate utilization and process efficiency appropriate substances or techniques are needed. It was therefore the aim of this work to investigate the effects of different enzyme preparations in three digestion process stages. Selected energy plants with varying degrees of particle sizes (chopping lengths) were used as digester feedstock. Enzyme preparations for the different process stages were chosen by enzyme assays. The selected enzymes were added to the feedstock during the ensiling, directly before the biogas process or during the biogas process separate or in mixtures. Pre-treated substrates were subsequently digested in batch fermentation tests. Beside the biogas and methane yield the degradation degree of lignocellulose and the release of low molecular carbohydrates were investigated for evaluating the enzyme performance. Additionally, the swelling of lignocellulose caused by addition of water in a pre-hydrolysis process was examined as a method of pre-treatment, with generally positive results. The aim of an improved substrate conversion of maize and rye and thus an enhanced biogas production by enzymatic pretreatments was achieved. Scientific fundamentals regarding the impact of enzymes on biogas processes were established. Enzymatic pretreatments in process steps before methanation showed potential for further developments.

No description available.

In Australia, significant effort goes into reducing the amount of nitrogen and phosphorus entering inland waters from point sources. However, little is known of the extent to which riparian organic matter may act as a source of these nutrients. Also, whilst the relationships between the nitrogen, phosphorus and carbon cycles are broadly known, there is little quantitative data regarding the release of these elements from Australian riparian organic matter and their subsequent microbial mineralisation within aquatic environments. In particular, comparatively little is known of their comparative role in nutrient and organic matter cycling within anoxic zones, and the influence that different riparian organic matter may have on stream water quality. This lack of such data presently hampers the ability of water managers to make educated decisions regarding the management of riparian zones in Australia. In order to improve understanding in this area, a combination of laboratory and in situ experiments were carried out in order to compare the abiotic release and aerobic/ anaerobic mineralisation of leaf derived dissolved organic carbon (DOC), dissolved nitrate/nitrite (NOx) and soluble reactive phosphorus (SRP) under different environmental conditions. Four plants common to Australian riparian zones were investigated: two native species, Eucalyptus camaldulensis (gum) and Phragmites australis (common reed), and two exotic species, Salix babylonica (willow) and Lolium multiflorum (rye grass). After 30 days, formaldehyde inhibited 1g willow and rye grass extracts contained the most SRP (0.7 mg/L), whilst gum extracts contained 0.3 mg/L and common reed 0.1 mg/L of SRP.Willow and rye grass abiotically released twice as much NOx than gum and common reed, although concentrations were only between 0.05-0.1 mg/L. Gum and common reed released the most DOC per gram of leaf matter (14 and 12 mmol/g of leaf matter respectively), but based on the initial carbon content of each leaf type, the largest percentage contributor of DOC under abiotic conditions was common reed and rye grass (both 38% mass/mass), with gum (33% mass/mass) and willow (30% mass/mass) being smaller contributors. The most bioavailable DOC was released by rye grass and common reed, with between 83 and 94% of this DOC microbially mineralised after 30 days in oxic conditions. When conditions were not inhibited, microbial growth was evident almost immediately in willow, rye grass and common reed leaf extracts. However, microbial growth was suppressed for the first 48 hours in gum leaf extracts. After this suppression period, the rate of DOC mineralisation was equal in willow and gum leaf extracts (0.1 day-1). Under anoxic conditions, the rate and extent of DOC mineralisation of willow and gum leaves depended on the type of electron acceptor provided. Added nitrate and iron III enhanced the mineralisation of both willow and gum leaves relative to no terminal electron acceptors (from zero to 0.01-0.04 and 0.002- 0.004 moles/day respectively), but added sulphate only enhanced the mineralisation of gum leaves (0.04 moles/day). When no additional electron acceptors were provided, particulate leaf mineralisation was more extensive under oxic than anoxic conditions. However, the mineralisation of leaf derived DOC were the same regardless of oxygen availability, and after 35 days in either condition the percentage of leaf DOC mineralised for each leaf type was of the order common reed > rye grass > willow > gum. All the leaf types tested were able to sustain the caddis fly larvae Triplectides australis under controlled laboratory conditions, and survival rates were high using all four leaf types as a food source. Triplectides australis did not significantly increase the amount of DOC released from each type of leaf matter, but they did consistently increase the proportion of simple carbohydrates present within the DOC fraction. The results of these experiments suggest that changes to riparian vegetation, particularly from the native to exotic species used in this study, will inherently alter in-stream concentrations of dissolved carbon and nutrients (particularly SRP). This potentially will affect in-stream, hyporheic and subsurface processes, particularly in areas where surface water flow is low and riparian leaf inputs are high.

Die vorliegende Arbeit befasst sich mit der Betrachtung der regionalen Klimawandelfolgen auf die landwirtschaftlichen Erträge des agrarintensiven Landes Niedersachsen. Zu diesem Zweck wurde das neuentwickelte robuste Pflanzenmodell BioStar herangezogen um mittels hochaufgelösten (100 × 100 m) Wettreg Klimadaten des 21. Jahrhunderts die Entwicklung der Biomasseerträge von vier Wintergetreiden (Weizen, Gerste, Roggen & Triticale), drei Maissorten (differenziert nach Reifezeitpunkt) und drei weiterer Feldfrüchte (Sonnenblume, Sorghum & Sommerweizen) zu modellieren. Bei dem Pflanzenmodell BioStar handelt es sich um ein kohlenstoffbasiertes Pflanzenmodell, mit dem anhand von Eingangsklimadaten (Niederschlagshöhe, Temperatur, Globalstrahlung, Luftfeuchte und Windgeschwindigkeit) und dem verfügbaren Bodenwasser (Feldkapazität) der Ertragszuwachs im Verlauf der Vegetationsperiode simuliert wird. Das Modell eignet sich für die Thematik insbesondere auch deshalb, da es an der Universität Göttingen entwickelt und auf Niedersächsischen Standorten validiert wurde. Die zur Modellierung benötigten Bodenparameter wurden der Niedersächsischen BÜK50n entnommen. Dabei kamen nur Flächen zur Anwendung, die nach der Corine Landbedeckungserhebung von 2005 zu den landwirtschaftlich genutzten Flächen in Niedersachsen zählen. Die mittlere Größe dieser gut 90.000 Flächen liegt damit um 33 ha. Die Entwicklung wird unter Berücksichtigung des IPCC Szenarios A1B sowie des CO2-Düngeeffekts bis zum Ende des Jahrhunderts pflanzenabhängig stagnierend bis deutlich positiv verlaufen, wovon allerdings nicht alle Regionen in gleicher Weise profitieren können. Insgesamt verschieben sich die landwirtschaftlichen Gunstgebiete weiter nach Westen — was aber durch die bessere Entwicklung des Westens und nicht in einer negativen Entwicklung der östlichen Flächen begründet ist. Das Ostbraunschweigische Hügelland ist meist unter den Regionen mit der besten Entwicklung, kann im absoluten Vergleich aber nie zu den guten landwirtschaftlichen Standorten aufschließen. Größter Verlierer wird den Ergebnissen nach das südliche Hügelland sein, das über die kommenden Jahrzehnte zusehends schlechtere Voraussetzungen für den Pflanzenanbau bietet. Die gesamte Entwicklung wird dabei aber erst ab etwa der Jahrhunderthälfte einsetzen, vorher lassen sich für den Großteil der Pflanzen kaum Veränderungen konstatieren. In den kommenden 20 Jahren zeigt nur die Gerste deutliche Anzeichen eines Ertragszuwachses und mittelreifender Mais eines Ertragsrückgangs. Bis 2099 kehrt sich dieser Trend dann wieder um. Eigentlich alle Feldfrüchte zeigen spätestens zum Jahrhundertende eine positive Entwicklungstendenz, wenn Winterweizen, Winterroggen und Wintertriticale auch nur vergleichsweise schwach. Die beiden hauptausschlaggebenden Entwicklungsfaktoren werden in Zukunft zum einen die atmosphärische CO2-Konzentration sein, über deren Düngeeffekt die Erträge positiv beeinfluss werden. Ihr stehen die abnehmenden Sommerniederschläge gegenüber, die sich deutlich negativ auf die Erträge auswirken. Vieles wird in Zukunft davon abhängen, inwieweit diese Niederschläge tatsächlich zurückgehen werden und wie stark der CO2-Düngeeffekt tatsächlich ausfallen wird. Ungeachtet dessen werden sich aber die Wintergerste und der Sommerweizen dennoch tendenziell positiv entwickeln können, da beider Entwicklung relativ unabhängig von den CO2- Konzentrationen verläuft, wobei die Gerste zusätzlich weniger anfällig auf sinkende Sommerniederschläge reagiert. Interessant wird auch die Entwicklung des Maises werden. Im Gegensatz zu anderen Studien die nur mit „Mais“ modellieren, wurde hier auf früh-, mittel- und spätreifende Sorten zurückgegriffen. Die unterschiedlichen Sorten besitzen über das Jahrhundert deutlich größere Unterschiede als etwa die Arten Weizen, Roggen und Triticale. Während mittelreifender Mais die schlechtesten Aussichten, eigentlich unter allen behandelten Pflanzen, besitzt, wird spätreifender Mais mit den deutlichsten Ertragszuwächsen im kommenden Jahrhundert rechnen können.

No description available.

Cover crop use provides a myriad of benefits to soil health. Despite strong agronomic evidence of the benefits of using cover crops, farmers have been slow to adopt cover crop systems. Surveys show that this is due to a lack of understanding on how cover crop use will impact the farm, and limited economic analysis on the effects of cover crop use on the farm. <div> In this thesis, a variable-rate nitrogen study was analyzed to determine the relationship between applied nitrogen fertilizer and corn yields, and how a cover crop treatment impacts that relationship. Data were obtained from a case farm in Central Indiana. Production information was then translated into a partial budget to see how the use of the different cover crop treatments impacted net return per acre for corn production on the farm. Net returns were analyzed using both historical corn and nitrogen prices and stochastic modelling.</div><div> Results showed that the final impact on farm net return per acre associated with adoption of a cover crop system varies among cover crop species. Implementing annual rye resulted in a negative change to net return; while cereal rye and an oats and radish blend resulted in a positive change to net return. When additional benefits of cover crop use; such as drought tolerance, carbon content, and erosion reduction; are included, all three cover crop species resulted in a substantial increase in net return. This information will be of interest to farmers as a source to draw upon when making decisions regarding their own farms. Further research is needed to fully understand the relationship between cover crop use and farm profitability, particularly for farms at the early stages of adoption.</div>

The thesis Catcher in the Rye and A Perfect Day for Bananafish - Motif analysis deals with motif analysis of these two literary works by J. D. Salinger. Analysis of the basic motifs of these works reveals the symbolism of Salinger's literary world, where the main themes are childhood, growing up and alienation. Essential role when presenting motifs goes to the main characters, who in these works are very distinctive, therefore they also need to be analyzed. In question of theory, the thesis is based on Boris Tomashevskyˈs concept of motif and narratological perspective of Tomáš Kubíček or Lubomír Doležel. Apart of the analysis itself the theses deals with questions of the relevance in the genre classification of the novel Catcher in the Rye as a Bildungsroman and whether Salinger idealizes childhood in his works or not.